Fig. 3: Impulsive brain circuits and targeted neuromodulation.

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) and basal ganglia are outlined as the basic neurological circuits underlying impulsivity. Within the PFC, specific regions have been identified for their critical role in impulsivity. These regions include the infralimbic cortex, the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). At the same time, the nucleus accumbens (NAc), located in the basal ganglia, makes a significant contribution to impulsivity by acting as a central hub. A number of neuromodulation techniques can be used to modulate neural activity in specific regions associated with impulsivity. Magnetic electroconvulsive therapy (MECT), magnetic convulsive therapy (MCT), deep transcranial magnetic stimulation (dTMS), and high-intensity transcranial alternating current stimulation (Hi-tACS) can target the whole brain. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) can target superficial cortical regions such as the prefrontal cortex and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). Temporal interference (TI), focused ultrasound (FUS), and deep brain stimulation (DBS) can be used to modulate deep nuclei such as the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and nucleus accumbens (NAc) in the basal ganglia. These different neuromodulation techniques offer potential therapeutic interventions for impulsivity by selectively modulating neural activity in specific regions associated with impulsive behaviour. Please note that subfigures (a-b) are reprinted with permission from ref. [139] (corresponding to original Fig. 3). Copyright 2017 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). Permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center (License ID: 1446338-1). The human architecture of the NAc was obtained from the Brainnetome Atlas [140].