Fig. 1: Molecular design of dipole-tailored NFAs and their performance in NFA-based PSCs.

a, b Molecular structures a and their electrostatic potential maps b of the modified NFAs. c, d J–V curves c and performance statistics d of NFA-based PSCs. e Certified J–V curves of champion PSC. f Performance comparison of inverted PSCs incorporating NFAs as ETLs, either individually or in combination with fullerene.