Fig. 6: Effective channel after twirling with single-qubit random Clifford gates.
From: Demonstration of robust and efficient quantum property learning with shallow shadows
a Under time-independent Markovian noise, the effective channel is a stochastic Pauli noise channel with fixed Pauli probabilities, independent across layers. b For time-dependent Markovian noise, the effective channel is a stochastic Pauli noise channel, but with time-dependent Pauli probabilities, while different layers remain independent. c Under non-Markovian noise, the effective channel exhibits stochastic Pauli noise with joint Pauli probabilities correlated across layers.
