Fig. 4: Hardware-aware training for addressing non-Ohmic conduction behavior.
a Output currents of multiple states as a function of the input voltages of non-Ohmic devices following Schottky conduction (Isch). b Output currents represented by the transformed voltage, V′. g′ remains constant over the input voltages. c Crossbar array after linear transformation (V to V′ and g to g′), enabling a formal VMM operation in the f-MDPE. d Crossbar array with non-Ohmic cells. In this case, the conductance changes according to the input voltage. e Four bits (i.e., 16 levels) of multilevel conductance states at the reference voltage, 3 V, with 15 cells. Note that box plots are defined by the minimum, 25th percentile (Q1), median, 75th percentile (Q3), and maximum values, with the box indicating the interquartile range (IQR) and the whiskers representing the full data range. f I–V curves at the read voltage region at each analog state. g g′ obtained by extracting values for each analog state using a compensation constant k = 7.
