Fig. 2: Spatiotemporal dynamics of land cover conversion (LCC)-driven impacts on net ecosystem productivity (NEP) from 1981 to 2019.

a Maps the spatial distribution of LCC-induced NEP changes, while b illustrates the proportional contribution of LCC to total NEP variations. The histogram denotes area proportion; c statistically resolves interannual trends, with solid blue and red curves representing annual and accumulative LCC-induced NEP changes, respectively, complemented by dashed polynomial regression line characterizing decadal-scale trajectories.