Fig. 4: Preimplantation exposure to maternal HFD induces intrauterine growth restriction and disrupts offspring metabolism.

a Representative images of implantation sites from dams fed either ND or HFD, n = 3 biologically independent experiments. b Representative images of embryos at embryonic day 12 from ND and HFD groups. c Quantification of the number of implantation sites at day 12 in both ND and HFD groups (n = 3 mice). d Comparison of embryo survival rates at day 12 between ND and HFD groups (n = 3 mice), IS: implantation sites. e Average weight of implantation sites at day 12 (ND: n = 46 implantation sites, HFD: n = 51 implantation sites), pooled from 3 dams per group. f Average weight of surviving embryos at day 12 (ND: n = 44 implantation sites, HFD: n = 48 implantation sites), pooled from 3 dams per group. g Average placental weight at day 12 (ND: n = 44 implantation sites, HFD: n = 48 implantation sites), pooled from 3 dams per group. h Representative images of newborn pups from the ND and HFD groups. i Average litter size at birth (ND: n = 8 dams, HFD: n = 9 dams). j Average body weight of newborn pups (ND: 67 pups from 5 dams, HFD: 59 pups from 5 dams). k Average length of newborn pups (ND: 42 pups from 3 dams, HFD: 67 pups from 4 dams). l Glucose Tolerance Test (GTT) results for 6-month-old male (left) and female (right) F1 offspring, M month. m GTT results represented as the area under the curve (AUC) for 2-, 4-, and 6-month-old male (left) and female (right) F1 offspring. ND-F1-male (n = 14 mice), HFD-F1-male (n = 11 mice), ND-F1-female (n = 8 mice), HFD-F1-female (n = 15 mice). Blue represents the ND group, and orange represents the HFD group. Two-tailed Student’s t-tests was used and data represent as mean ± s.e.m. *P ≤ 0.05, **P ≤ 0.01, ***P ≤ 0.001. Statistical source data and precise P value are provided as in the Source Data file.