Fig. 2: Structural equation models of the relationship among L1–L3 proficiencies along with nonlanguage factors. | npj Science of Learning

Fig. 2: Structural equation models of the relationship among L1–L3 proficiencies along with nonlanguage factors.

From: Language and nonlanguage factors in foreign language learning: evidence for the learning condition hypothesis

Fig. 2

Parameter estimates are unstandardized, and the paths are scaled to reflect effect size. Red arrows represent negative paths, while blue arrows are positive paths. L1–L3 are latent variables of language proficiency with Chinese HKDSE grades, English HKDSE grades, and L3 Global scores as their indicators, respectively. Only significant relationships are presented and denoted with asterisks: *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001. a The LCH model. b The LCDH and FDH models are tested simultaneously because they both concern connections (or lack therefore) of L1–L2, L2–L3, and L1–L3. The path between L1 and L3 as indicated by the dashed arrows was not significant.

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