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Islands are key for protecting the world’s plant endemism

Nature volume 634, pages 868–874 (2024)Cite this article

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Abstract

Islands are renowned as evolutionary laboratories and support many species that are not found elsewhere1,2. Islands are also of great conservation concern, with many of their endemic species currently threatened or extinct3. Here we present a standardized checklist of all known vascular plants that occur on islands and document their geographical and phylogenetic distribution and conservation risk. Our analyses of 304,103 plant species reveal that 94,052 species (31%) are native to islands, which constitute 5.3% of the global landmass4. Of these, 63,280 are island endemic species, which represent 21% of global plant diversity. Three-quarters of these are restricted to large or isolated islands. Compared with the world flora, island endemics are non-randomly distributed within the tree of life, with a total of 1,005 billion years of unique phylogenetic history with 17 families and 1,702 genera being entirely endemic to islands. Of all vascular plants assigned International Union for Conservation of Nature conservation categories5, 22% are island endemics. Among these endemic species, 51% are threatened, and 55% of all documented global extinctions have occurred on islands. We find that of all single-island endemic species, only 6% occur on islands meeting the United Nations 30×30 conservation target. Urgent measures including habitat restoration, invasive species removal and ex situ programmes are needed to protect the world’s island flora. Our checklist quantifies the uniqueness of island life, provides a basis for future studies of island floras, and highlights the urgent need to take actions for conserving them.

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Fig. 1: Global distribution of native and endemic vascular plant diversity across 1,651 islands and 141 archipelagos.
Fig. 2: Proportion of endemic island plants at family level.
Fig. 3: Number and proportion of endemic species on islands and archipelagos in relation to island and archipelago area and isolation.
Fig. 4: Global risk to native and endemic island species and coverage of protected areas on islands.

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Data availability

The standardized checklist of the world flora including information for all species on their geographic status—for example, if a species is native and/or endemic to islands, archipelagos or islands of floristic regions and/or native to the mainland—is available in a Figshare repository: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.24448108 (ref. 20). Note that all data made available here are based on GIFT v.3.2. In future, newer versions may be available and accessible using the GIFT R package58.

Code availability

Code to download data from GIFT and generate species lists for all species native and endemic to islands and the mainland based on all four counting methods including flagging of species belonging to genera prone to asexual reproduction via apomixis is available in a Figshare repository: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.24448108 (ref. 20).

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Acknowledgements

H.K. acknowledges funding of research unit FOR2716 DynaCom (379417748) and Biodiversa+ BioMonI (533271599) from the German Research Foundation (DFG). G.M.P. and T.A.R. acknowledge funding from the US National Science Foundation (under grants DEB 1555657 and 1555793), the National Geographic Society, The Christensen Fund, the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, the Franklinia Foundation, the Marisla Foundation, the Gildea Foundation and the Silicon Valley Community Fund.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

    Julian Schrader & Mark Westoby

  2. Department of Biodiversity, Macroecology and Biogeography, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany

    Patrick Weigelt, Lirong Cai & Holger Kreft

  3. Centre of Biodiversity and Sustainable Land Use, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany

    Patrick Weigelt & Holger Kreft

  4. Campus Institute Data Science, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany

    Patrick Weigelt & Holger Kreft

  5. Island Ecology and Biogeography Research Group, Instituto Universitario de Enfermedades Tropicales y Salud Pública de Canarias (IUETSPC), Universidad de La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain

    José María Fernández-Palacios

  6. Department of Biodiversity, Ecology and Evolution, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain

    Francisco J. Cabezas

  7. Cullman Program for Molecular Systematics, New York Botanical Garden, New York, NY, USA

    Gregory M. Plunkett

  8. School of Life Sciences, University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, USA

    Tom A. Ranker

  9. Department of Ecology and Taxonomy, Faculty of Biology, National and Kapodistrian University, Athens, Greece

    Kostas A. Triantis

  10. School of Plant Sciences, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

    Panayiotis Trigas

  11. Faculty of Science, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Japan

    Yasuhiro Kubota

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Contributions

J.S., P.W. and H.K. conceived the initial idea of this work. J.S., P.W., M.W. and H.K. designed the study. J.S., P.W., L.C., Y.K., P.T., K.A.T., F.J.C., G.M.P., T.A.R. and H.K. compiled the data. J.S., P.W. and L.C. curated the data. J.S. analysed and visualized the data. J.S. wrote the manuscript with substantial contributions from P.W., M.W., J.M.F.-P. and H.K. All authors commented on the draft.

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Correspondence to Julian Schrader.

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Extended data figures and tables

Extended Data Fig. 1 Frequency distribution of number of endemic species.

(A) number and (B) proportion of endemic species across single island floras (n = 323 islands). 1,328 islands with no single-island endemic species have been excluded.

Extended Data Fig. 2 Relationship between the total global species richness of all known families (A; n = 476) and genera (B; n = 15,030) and the richness of species endemic to islands in each family and genus.

A&B: Grey dashed lines indicate 100%, 10% and 1% of species in each family and genus endemic to islands. The five most species-rich families both in overall richness and richness of island endemic species are: Asteraceae, Orchidaceae, Fabaceae, Rubiaceae and Apocynaceae. The five most species-rich genera in terms of island endemic species are: Bulbophyllum, Dendrobium, Psychotria, Syzygium and Begonia.

Extended Data Fig. 3 Phylogenetic distribution of insular plant endemism.

Shown is the proportion of endemic island plants at family level and for three different island categories: A) continental islands (560); B) islands of complex origin including continental fragments (31 islands); C) oceanic islands (1,060 islands). Tip and inner ring colours indicate coverage of endemic island plants at family level, outer ring delimits major clades. Bar heights in the outer ring are proportional to log10 richness of endemic species per family. Proportions of island endemics are significantly different between families. Phylogenetic signal down to family level is expressed as Abouheif’s Cmean, a measure of phylogenetic autocorrelation calculated by summing the squared differences between values of adjacent tips in the phylogeny; the significant p-values indicate that families closer to each other in the phylogeny tend to be more similar in their proportion of island endemics.

Extended Data Fig. 4 Numbers and proportion of endemic vascular plants on islands in relation to island area, isolation and absolute latitude across all islands in each category.

Islands are grouped into continental (560 islands), complex origin and fragment (31) and oceanic (1,060). Only significant relationships are shown. Latitude is shown in absolute degrees. Species-area relationship z-values (A, D) are as follows: (A) continental islands: z = 0.47; complex origin and fragment islands: z = 0.72; oceanic islands: z = 0.28. (D) continental islands: z = 0.02; complex origin and fragment islands: z = 0.05; oceanic islands: z = 0.01.

Extended Data Fig. 5 Proportion of non-endemic island and endemic island species in the IUCN categories.

Near Threatened, Threatened, Endangered, Critically Endangered, Extinct in the Wild and Extinct. A – D: Global distribution of the numbers (A, B) and proportion (C, D) of island natives (right row) and endemics (left row) falling into one of these IUCN threat categories (Extinct species excluded).

Extended Data Fig. 6 Regions with checklist data extracted from GIFT database.

A: Global coverage with mainland regions in orange and islands in blue. This dataset was used for the counting method #2; exclusion method. B: All regions with checklists that include both mainland and islands (purple), which were included as mainland regions. This step can lead to underestimation of island endemism based on the exclusion method, as also species potentially endemic to some of those islands included are now listed as mainland species. However, this step was necessary to reach global coverage of the dataset used for the exclusion method.

Extended Data Fig. 7 Global distribution of native and endemic vascular plants.

The distribution includes species from genera with apomictic species across 1,651 islands and 141 archipelagos. In the main text species from genera with apomictic species have been excluded as documentation of apomictic genera is highly skewed towards well-sampled floras in Europe and North America likely representing a geographical bias in taxonomic treatment and coverage. Left column indicates numbers for single islands, right column for archipelagos. Numbers of natives are shown in first row (A, B), endemic in second row (C, D) and endemics as proportion of total island richness in last row (E, F). Difference from Fig. 1 in main text is mainly in higher numbers of native and endemic island species. Some islands and archipelagos where many species have been recognized within apomictic genera (e.g., Great Britain, Spitsbergen) have proportionally higher endemism compared to Fig. 1 in main text.

Extended Data Fig. 8 Global distribution of native and endemic vascular plants to floristic regions based on the classification from Takhtajan.

(Takhtajan, A. Floristic Regions of the World. 1986). Only floristic regions including islands are shown (33 out of 35).

Extended Data Table 1 The top five islands, archipelagos and floristic regions globally in terms of numbers of native and endemic vascular plant species and their proportions
Full size table
Extended Data Table 2 The top-five islands globally with most species in IUCN conservation categories
Full size table

Supplementary information

Supplementary Figure 1

Logical workflow of different counting methods and their relatedness of island endemics. This figure provides an overview about data workflows for counting island plant endemic species based on the four methods described in the Methods section of the main text.

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Schrader, J., Weigelt, P., Cai, L. et al. Islands are key for protecting the world’s plant endemism. Nature 634, 868–874 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08036-1

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