Extended Data Fig. 3: Glossary table and the clinical tasks related with each validation experiment.

First, we conducted retrospective validations, comparing EyeFM with prior benchmarks of medical foundation models. This step serves as the foundation for evaluating the model’s performance and safety when progressing to clinical applications. Second, we conducted reader studies and real-world study prospectively to test the efficiency of EyeFM as a clinical copilot to assist ophthalmologists. This step bridged the gap between the performance of the model its own and its efficiency when applicated by clinicians. At last, we validated EyeFM with a Randomised Controlled Trial (RCT). Colored chart, above, validation experiments and their corresponding relationship with the functions of EyeFM. The x-axis represents different tasks of EyeFM and y-axis represents validation experiments. Cells were coloured if the experiments have validated corresponding functions. Below, glossary table of the tasks, clinical scenario and experiments. RCT, randomised controlled trial.