Table 3 Definition of outcomes. Definitions for different types of outcomes used in the included studies. Each outcome type is described along with its respective explanation.

Outcomes

Knowledge acquisition

Process by which the mind decodes or extracts, stores, and relates new information to existing information ³⁶. Knowledge acquisition methods and techniques present various forms ³⁷.

Usefulness

Student feedback pertaining to the perceived usefulness of the applied instrument. Usually obtained through a self-perception rating ³⁸

Skills development

Ability and capacity acquired through deliberate, systematic, and sustained effort to smoothly and adaptively carryout complex activities or job functions involving ideas (cognitive skills), things (technical skills), and/or people (interpersonal skills) ³⁹, whose recognition, practice, and internalization aims towards improved execution ⁴⁰

Knowledge application

Available knowledge used to make decisions and perform tasks through direction and routines ⁴¹

Attitudes

Learned tendency or readiness to evaluate things or react to some ideas, persons or situations in certain ways, either consciously or unconsciously ⁴², particularly in the domains of teamwork, roles and responsibilities, patient-centeredness, interprofessional biases, diversity and ethics; and community-centeredness ⁴³

Anxiety

An individual’s emotional state, whether temporary or prolonged, is marked by conscious subjective feelings of tension or apprehension, accompanied by heightened activity of the autonomous nervous system ⁴⁴

Motivation

The driving forces that empower students to learn effectively can originate from either internal (intrinsic) or external (extrinsic) sources ⁴⁵