Table 3 Weighted odds ratios in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus, stratified by central adiposity groups before and during COVID–19 (weighted % [95% CI]).

From: National trends in type 2 diabetes mellitus stratified by central adiposity using waist-to-height ratio in South Korea, 2005–2022

Variables

Overall (2005–2022)

Before the pandemic (2005–2019)

During the pandemic (2020–2022)

Ratio of ORs (95% CI)

during the pandemic compared to before the pandemic (reference)

Weighted OR (95% CI)

P-value

Weighted OR (95% CI)

P-value

Weighted OR (95% CI)

P-value

Weighted ratio of OR (95% CI)

P-value

Healthy central adipositya

         

Sex

Female

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Male

2.19 (1.96 to 2.44)

< 0.001

2.31 (2.05 to 2.62)

< 0.001

1.87 (1.46 to 2.40)

< 0.001

0.81 (0.61 to 1.07)

0.134

Age, years

30–39

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

40–49

4.00 (3.01 to 5.32)

< 0.001

4.00 (2.98 to 5.35)

< 0.001

4.31 (1.39 to 13.35)

0.012

1.08 (0.34 to 3.47)

0.900

50–59

9.51 (7.23 to 12.52)

< 0.001

8.45 (6.36 to 11.23)

< 0.001

18.63 (6.33 to 54.83)

< 0.001

2.20 (0.72 to 6.73)

0.166

≥60

17.72 (13.63 to 23.05)

< 0.001

16.05 (12.27 to 21.00)

< 0.001

31.79 (10.94 to 92.37)

< 0.001

1.98 (0.66 to 5.95)

0.223

Region of residence

Urban

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Rural

1.53 (1.34 to 1.75)

< 0.001

1.43 (1.23 to 1.67)

< 0.001

2.11 (1.57 to 2.84)

< 0.001

1.47 (1.06 to 2.05)

0.022

BMI groupb

Underweight or normal weight

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Overweight

0.98 (0.85 to 1.12)

0.715

1.11 (0.95 to 1.29)

0.186

0.53 (0.37 to 0.76)

0.001

0.48 (0.33 to 0.71)

< 0.001

Obese

0.84 (0.64 to 1.10)

0.207

0.90 (0.67 to 1.21)

0.501

0.62 (0.30 to 1.30)

0.207

0.69 (0.31 to 1.52)

0.357

Education level

College or higher education

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Middle school or lower education

2.17 (1.94 to 2.42)

< 0.001

2.19 (1.94 to 2.47)

< 0.001

2.57 (1.94 to 3.42)

< 0.001

1.18 (0.86 to 1.60)

0.303

Household income

Third and highest quartile

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Lowest and second quartile

1.57 (1.41 to 1.74)

< 0.001

1.66 (1.48 to 1.87)

< 0.001

1.33 (1.03 to 1.71)

0.026

0.80 (0.61 to 1.06)

0.114

Smoking status

Non-smoker

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Smoker or ex-smoker

2.97 (2.66 to 3.31)

< 0.001

3.15 (2.79 to 3.57)

< 0.001

2.42 (1.89 to 3.09)

< 0.001

0.77 (0.58 to 1.01)

0.058

Increased central adipositya

         

Sex

Female

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Male

1.20 (1.13 to 1.28)

< 0.001

1.18 (1.10 to 1.27)

< 0.001

1.18 (1.03 to 1.36)

0.015

1.00 (0.86 to 1.17)

0.990

Age, years

30–39

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

40–49

2.29 (1.91 to 2.75)

< 0.001

2.21 (1.80 to 2.71)

< 0.001

2.63 (1.72 to 4.01)

< 0.001

1.19 (0.74 to 1.90)

0.472

50–59

4.10 (3.45 to 4.87)

< 0.001

3.86 (3.19 to 4.67)

< 0.001

5.00 (3.35 to 7.46)

< 0.001

1.29 (0.83 to 2.02)

0.255

≥60

6.15 (5.21 to 7.25)

< 0.001

5.75 (4.79 to 6.91)

< 0.001

7.33 (5.00 to 10.75)

< 0.001

1.28 (0.83 to 1.95)

0.262

Region of residence

Urban

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Rural

1.14 (1.05 to 1.24)

0.002

1.12 (1.01 to 1.23)

0.026

1.30 (1.11 to 1.53)

0.001

1.17 (0.97 to 1.41)

0.103

BMI groupb

Underweight or normal weight

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Overweight

1.18 (1.08 to 1.29)

< 0.001

1.30 (1.17 to 1.44)

< 0.001

0.80 (0.66 to 0.97)

0.021

0.62 (0.49 to 0.77)

< 0.001

Obese

1.03 (0.94 to 1.12)

0.551

1.14 (1.04 to 1.26)

0.007

0.68 (0.57 to 0.81)

< 0.001

0.60 (0.49 to 0.73)

< 0.001

Education level

College or higher education

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Middle school or lower education

1.73 (1.62 to 1.84)

< 0.001

1.75 (1.62 to 1.88)

< 0.001

2.12 (1.85 to 2.43)

< 0.001

1.21 (1.04 to 1.42)

0.014

Household income

Third and highest quartile

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Lowest and second quartile

1.55 (1.45 to 1.64)

< 0.001

1.51 (1.41 to 1.62)

< 0.001

1.74 (1.54 to 1.98)

< 0.001

1.15 (0.99 to 1.33)

0.051

Smoking status

Non-smoker

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Smoker or ex-smoker

1.44 (1.35 to 1.53)

< 0.001

1.41 (1.32 to 1.52)

< 0.001

1.48 (1.29 to 1.70)

< 0.001

1.05 (0.90 to 1.22)

0.541

High central adipositya

         

Sex

Female

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Male

1.07 (0.94 to 1.23)

0.327

1.01 (0.86 to 1.19)

0.909

1.05 (0.81 to 1.35)

0.715

1.04 (0.77 to 1.40)

0.808

Age, years

30–39

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

40–49

1.98 (1.39 to 2.80)

< 0.001

2.30 (1.52 to 3.47)

< 0.001

1.61 (0.85 to 3.05)

0.143

0.70 (0.33 to 1.50)

0.360

50–59

2.32 (1.67 to 3.22)

< 0.001

2.65 (1.80 to 3.91)

< 0.001

2.00 (1.08 to 3.69)

0.027

0.75 (0.37 to 1.56)

0.446

≥60

2.59 (1.93 to 3.46)

< 0.001

3.31 (2.36 to 4.66)

< 0.001

1.70 (0.99 to 2.91)

0.055

0.51 (0.27 to 0.97)

0.040

Region of residence

Urban

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Rural

0.93 (0.80 to 1.07)

0.292

0.95 (0.80 to 1.12)

0.525

0.93 (0.72 to 1.22)

0.608

0.99 (0.72 to 1.35)

0.925

BMI groupb

Underweight or normal weight

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Overweight

5.85 (2.54 to 13.47)

< 0.001

10.66 (4.19 to 27.12)

< 0.001

0.55 (0.10 to 2.86)

0.472

0.05 (0.01 to 0.34)

0.002

Obese

8.24 (3.79 to 17.94)

< 0.001

16.00 (6.72 to 38.08)

< 0.001

0.59 (0.13 to 2.77)

0.503

0.04 (0.01 to 0.22)

< 0.001

Education level

College or higher education

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Middle school or lower education

1.26 (1.10 to 1.45)

0.001

1.43 (1.21 to 1.68)

< 0.001

1.12 (0.87 to 1.45)

0.373

0.79 (0.58 to 1.07)

0.127

Household income

Third and highest quartile

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Lowest and second quartile

1.35 (1.18 to 1.54)

< 0.001

1.49 (1.27 to 1.75)

< 0.001

1.19 (0.93 to 1.52)

0.160

0.80 (0.60 to 1.07)

0.132

Smoking status

Non-smoker

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

1.00 (ref)

 

Smoker or ex-smoker

1.32 (1.16 to 1.51)

< 0.001

1.28 (1.09 to 1.50)

0.002

1.34 (1.04 to 1.73)

0.026

1.05 (0.78 to 1.42)

0.756

  1. Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index; CI, confidence interval; KNHANES, Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey; OR, odds ratio.
  2. The values in bold font represent a significant variance (p < 0.05).
  3. a According to the guidelines from the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, central adiposity is divided into three groups: healthy central adiposity (waist-to-height ratio 0.40–0.49), increased central adiposity (waist-to-height ratio 0.50–0.59), and high central adiposity (waist-to-height ratio ≥ 0.60).
  4. b According to the Asian-Pacific guidelines, BMI is divided into four groups: underweight (< 18.5 kg/m2), normal (18.5–22.9 kg/m2), overweight (23.0–24.9 kg/m2), and obese (25.0–34.9 kg/m2).
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