Fig. 1

Exercise intervention protocol. The exercise intervention spanned 12 weeks (≥ 3 sessions/week, ≥ 150 min/week). Body composition, sleep patterns, metabolic markers, and carotid arterial ultrasound information were assessed before and after the 12-week exercise. CON, the control group that did not exercise; ME, the morning exercise group that exercised between 6 and 8 a.m.; EE, the evening exercise group that exercised between 6 and 8 p.m.