Introduction

Rural residential bases are crucial living spaces for farmers and an essential part of rural land worldwide1,2. These bases are material foundations for addressing rural population and urbanisation issues and are pivotal for implementing rural revitalisation strategies and developing beautiful countryside3,4. Globally, the efficient use of rural land is a significant challenge5, as many countries experience the problem of unused rural residential bases, leading to the wastage of land resources 6,7,8. In this research, the term “unused rural residential bases” is used broadly to include residential bases that are vacant, underutilised, or unused due to demographic, economic, social, or policy-related factors1,3,9.

In China, the waste of rural land resources is still serious5,10,11, with many unused residential bases existing12. China has 1.918 billion square meters of arable land and 510 million rural people, with a per capita arable land area of 1.36 mu and a per capita residential base area of up to 366.7 square meters1,8,13. Similar issues are observed internationally. In India, inefficiencies in rural land use have prompted the government to introduce land consolidation and redistribution policies14,15,16,17. Programs like the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) aim to improve land productivity and enhance rural infrastructure, including land development9,18,19,20,21.

Brazil faces challenges with unutilised rural properties, particularly in the Amazon region22,23,24, where land speculation and deforestation have led to unused lands25. The Brazilian government has implemented the Terra Legal program to regularise land tenure and promote sustainable land use26,27. Agrarian reform initiatives aim to redistribute land to landless workers, enhancing rural development28,29.

In the United States, unused rural residential bases are often due to the decline of agricultural industries in certain areas30,31,32. Programs such as the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) incentivise farmers to convert unused agricultural land into conservation reserves, promoting environmental sustainability while addressing land idleness33,34.

The EU’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) includes measures to prevent land abandonment and promote rural development35,36,37. Member states implement national strategies to optimise land use, support rural economies, and prevent land degradation through sustainable agricultural practices and land consolidation efforts38,39.

Many African countries struggle with unused rural residential bases due to urban migration, land tenure issues, and lack of infrastructure40,41,42,43. For instance, in Kenya, the issue of unused rural residential bases is exacerbated by outdated land tenure systems and inadequate land management policies44,45,46. To address this, Kenya has implemented the National Land Policy, which focuses on land reform, improving land registration systems, and enhancing land use planning to promote sustainable development. In Ghana, the Land Administration Project aims to streamline land administration processes, improve land tenure security, and promote efficient land use47. Countries like Ethiopia and Rwanda have also launched programs to register land and provide farmers with tenure security, encouraging land investment and reducing unused rural residential bases48,49,50,51.

Academic research has focused on various strategies to manage unused rural residential bases. Studies have examined land consolidation practices52, policy implementations for land use optimisation52,53, and community-based land management approaches54,55. These strategies aim to enhance the efficient use of rural land, support rural revitalisation, and improve the quality of life for rural residents1,2,4. With that, below is the justification for this research study on this realm and domain.

This study bridges methodological and empirical gaps by using a binary logistic regression model to systematically analyse the factors contributing to unused residential bases in rural China. This study explains the multi-faceted reasons behind unused rural residential bases by including socio-economic variables such as family size, income sources, education levels, and policy awareness. It moves beyond descriptive approaches to offer a quantitative analysis that accounts for the interaction of various factors, providing a more robust foundation for policy recommendations.

Additionally, the study examines the governance measures implemented to address unused rural residential bases, analysing their effectiveness and offering context-specific solutions. This research draws comparisons with international practices while highlighting the unique characteristics of the Chinese rural context, contributing to a more nuanced global understanding of how to address land inefficiency issues in rural revitalisation strategies.

This study selected several key variables to thoroughly examine the factors contributing to the unused rural residential bases, focusing on their socio-economic, cultural, and policy-related implications. One of the most important variables is family size, which plays a significant role in land use decisions28,47. Larger families often require more space and are more likely to keep residential bases in active use, particularly in rural settings where multi-generational living is common44. This intergenerational usage can significantly reduce the likelihood of land being left unused56. The income sources of households are another critical variable, as they reflect the economic capacity and mobility of rural residents49,57. Households with diverse sources of income, particularly those with non-agricultural earnings, are more likely to migrate to urban areas, where opportunities are more abundant17. As a result, these households may abandon their rural properties in favour of urban living, thus contributing to higher rates of land idleness in rural areas1. The emotional attachment to the homestead is another key factor influencing land use, particularly in rural regions where land is not just an economic asset but also a cultural one46. Inherited or family-owned land carries deep emotional significance, sometimes preventing landowners from selling or developing the property, even if it remains unused28. Lastly, policy awareness is pivotal in determining how land is utilized6. Those with a better understanding of land use policies and regulations are more likely to make informed decisions about land management3. This knowledge can lead to more efficient land use, as policy awareness can prompt landowners to either develop, sell, or repurpose underutilized land instead of leaving it unused58. Each variable was selected to directly influence how land is utilized or left unused, providing a comprehensive framework for understanding the underlying causes of land idleness.

As for economic impact, unused rural residential bases represent a significant economic inefficiency53,59. Not utilising these lands effectively, there is a loss in potential agricultural output, economic productivity, and local economic development60,61. Studying and addressing this issue can unlock substantial economic benefits for rural areas.

Regarding social stability, effective management of rural land is crucial for social stability6,62. Unused rural residential bases can lead to land ownership and usage disputes, particularly in communities with dense populations and limited resources63. It can reduce conflicts and enhance social cohesion by finding solutions for unused lands.

As for environmental sustainability, unused rural residential bases can lead to environmental degradation64, such as soil erosion and loss of biodiversity65,66. Efficient land use practices contribute to environmental sustainability by maintaining healthy ecosystems and promoting sustainable agricultural practices67.

To support rural revitalisation, in China’s rural revitalisation strategy, optimising the use of rural residential bases is key to improving living conditions2, boosting the rural economy68, and reducing urban migration69,70. This study aims to contribute to these broader policy goals by providing actionable insights and governance measures.

The primary purpose of this study is to analyse the factors contributing to unused residential bases in rural areas and to propose effective governance strategies to address this issue. The study focuses on Xin’an Town, employing field investigation and questionnaire survey to classify and analyse the types of unused rural residential bases. The research aims to provide a foundation for proposing governance countermeasures tailored to local conditions, promoting the optimal allocation of rural land resources, and supporting the rural revitalisation strategy; therefore, the following two research questions are raised to guide this work.

  1. 1.

    What are the main factors contributing to the unused rural residential bases?

  2. 2.

    How can governance measures be implemented to utilise unused rural residential bases and support rural revitalisation effectively?

Literature review

The governance of unused rural residential bases is a multifaceted issue encompassing economic71, social72, and environmental dimensions13. Effective management strategies are necessary to ensure the optimal use of land resources, enhance economic productivity, and improve the quality of life in rural areas73,74.

Rural land governance is critical for sustainable development, food security, and economic stability75,76. In China, the transformation of rural residential base systems has been a significant focus77,78. Recent reforms, such as the "separation of three rights" (ownership, contract, and management), aim to enhance land use efficiency and tenure security, addressing inefficiencies and underutilisation that often lead to economic and social costs79,80.

Globally, countries have adopted various strategies to reform their rural land systems 59,80. In India, land consolidation and redistribution policies have been crucial for improving land productivity and addressing fragmentation81,82,83. Programs such as the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) and Atal Bhujal Yojana have significantly enhanced rural infrastructure and agricultural efficiency84,85. Similarly, Brazil’s Terra Legal program focuses on land tenure regularisation and sustainable land use, addressing land speculation and deforestation 22,26,28,55. In the United States, the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) incentivises farmers to convert unused agricultural land into conservation reserves, promoting environmental sustainability while addressing land idleness30,86,87. The European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) supports rural development and prevents land abandonment through subsidies and sustainable agricultural practices37,38.

Classifying unused residential bases is essential for understanding the underlying causes of land idleness and developing targeted governance measures3,88. In China, unused rural residential bases are categorised into entirely unused bases post-construction, unbuilt bases post-demolition, inherited unused bases, moved-out unused bases, and dilapidated unused bases89,90,91. These classifications help policymakers design effective interventions tailored to specific causes of land idleness.

Similar classifications exist globally. In Brazil, unused lands are categorised based on legal disputes, lack of infrastructure, or speculative holdings92,93. In India, classifications include unused land due to family disputes, migration, or economic unviability14,21. Such classifications are crucial for designing effective policy responses tailored to the underlying causes of land idleness 94.

Effective management of unused rural land involves various strategies tailored to specific causes of land idleness95,96,97. In China, governance measures include compulsory recovery and clearance of incomplete construction projects98, strict enforcement of the "one household, one residence" policy, paid withdrawal incentives, industry-driven income enhancement, and supervision of dilapidated homesteads99,100,101. These strategies aim to optimise land use and support rural revitalisation by addressing the factors contributing to land idleness102.

In Brazil, land tenure regularisation and agrarian reform initiatives aim to bring unused land into productive use by providing legal clarity and support to landholders103,104,105. These initiatives address land speculation and encourage sustainable land management practices. The United States CRP focuses on converting unused agricultural land into conservation reserves, promoting environmental sustainability, and addressing land idleness simultaneously106. The European Union’s CAP includes measures to support rural development and prevent land abandonment through subsidies and incentives for sustainable agricultural practices, maintaining agricultural land in productive use, and supporting rural community viability107,108.

In Africa, countries like Kenya and Ghana have initiated land reform programs focusing on land registration, improving land tenure security, and promoting efficient land use109. Kenya’s National Land Policy emphasises land reform, improved land registration systems, and enhanced land use planning to promote sustainable development40. Ethiopia and Rwanda have launched programs to register land and provide farmers tenure security, encouraging land investment and reducing idleness110.

Socio-economic impacts of unused rural residential bases

The implications of unused rural residential bases extend far beyond simple land wastage109,110. Numerous studies have highlighted the economic inefficiencies caused by unused land, particularly in rural areas. Unused rural residential bases often represent a significant loss in potential agricultural production and limit rural communities’ economic development. Specifically, unused rural residential bases reduce available agricultural space, thereby hindering productivity and local economic growth11,98,107. This economic inefficiency exacerbates the challenges of rural poverty and limits opportunities for rural residents, particularly in areas with a high dependency on agriculture for livelihoods100.

Moreover, the social consequences of unused rural residential bases cannot be understated. Unused residential bases often lead to land disputes and conflict over ownership—issues that undermine social stability, particularly in densely populated rural regions40,104. Unresolved land ownership issues can lead to community disputes, disrupting social cohesion98. Land tenure insecurity is a well-documented problem in many developing countries, with implications for social stability and community well-being84. In the case of unused residential bases, land that could otherwise contribute to rural communities’ livelihoods becomes a source of social friction, mainly when there is a lack of clear legal frameworks to govern land use and ownership43,95.

Environmental sustainability is another key consideration. Unused rural residential bases, especially when left unattended for extended periods, can lead to environmental degradation6,111. This includes soil erosion, biodiversity loss, and deforestation in areas where agricultural land is not actively cultivated or managed41. Additionally, unused rural residential bases can become breeding grounds for pests, contributing to public health issues6,64. Rural land abandonment in the European Union emphasizes how such abandoned lands, when left unmanaged, become a liability rather than an asset, stressing the importance of promoting sustainable land-use practices to maintain environmental integrity37,38.

In this context, the socio-economic impacts of unused rural residential bases cannot be fully understood without considering the local economic structures and cultural practices that shape land-use decisions68. Cultural attachment to land, for example, plays a significant role in the persistence of land idleness in rural communities, where land is seen as an economic asset and part of family heritage41. These socio-cultural factors influence landowners’ decisions to leave their properties unused, even when such land could be better utilized for economic or social purposes103.

Methodological gaps in existing literature

While numerous studies have explored the issue of unused rural residential bases112,113, a significant methodological gap exists in the literature, particularly in quantitative approaches to understanding the factors contributing to unused rural residential bases. Most previous studies have predominantly relied on qualitative methods, such as case studies, interviews, and expert opinions, to explore the issue56,108,114. While these approaches offer valuable insights into the lived experiences of landowners and communities, they fail to comprehensively understand the statistical relationships between the various socio-economic, cultural, and policy-related factors that influence land use decisions.

The reliance on descriptive analyses and qualitative case studies can be limiting as they often fail to quantify the relative importance of different factors. For instance, family size, income sources, and policy awareness are often discussed in general terms without exploring their interactions or statistical significance. This lack of empirical evidence leaves a gap in understanding how these variables collectively influence the decision to leave land unused and the impact of government policies designed to address land underutilisation. Few studies have adopted sophisticated quantitative methods such as binary logistic regression to measure the relative contributions of various factors in a way that accounts for their interactions68,115.

Additionally, while many studies focus on the global dimension of unused rural residential bases98,115, few studies attempt to bridge the gap between local governance and land-use policy. In particular, there is a lack of research on the effectiveness of local governance strategies in addressing the problem of unused rural residential bases, especially in rural China, where policy changes—such as the “One Household, One Residence” policy—directly affect land ownership and use99,115.

Geographic coverage and contextual gaps

Another significant gap in the existing literature is the geographic coverage of studies on unused rural residential bases. While there is extensive research on land management and idleness in countries like India, Brazil, and the United States30,44,84,85,103, the focus has often been on agricultural land rather than residential bases. Furthermore, many studies are limited to specific regions, often overlooking the broader comparative context.

For example, research conducted in India focuses heavily on land consolidation efforts and agricultural land reform83,84,85, while studies in Brazil emphasize land tenure regularisation and the prevention of deforestation in the Amazon region28,57. These studies provide important insights but are geographically and contextually limited, offering little guidance for addressing the idleness of residential bases in rural areas.

Moreover, much of the existing research fails to consider the unique context of China’s rural revitalisation policies98,115, which play a central role in shaping land use and governance. In this respect, while China has adopted a range of land-use reforms and rural revitalisation strategies, the socio-economic effects of these reforms, particularly in unused rural residential bases, have not been adequately explored in the literature. The gap in geographic and contextual coverage underscores the need for studies focusing specifically on the dynamics of rural residential bases and the effectiveness of local governance measures in China.

Research methods

Statement: This study confirms that all methods were carried out per relevant guidelines and regulations. The Jiaying University university’s institutional and licensing committee approved all experimental protocols. Informed consent was obtained from all subjects and legal guardian(s).

This research primarily employs two research methods: field investigation and a combination of questionnaire surveys with binary logistic regression analysis. The structure of this session is followed by study area characterization, data collection, and data analysis for each method, respectively.

Study area characterization

Xin’an Town is located in the Ulat Front Banner, part of Bayannur in Inner Mongolia, China116,117, as the research site map shown in Fig. 1. This region is known for its diverse geography, significant historical reforms, and ongoing development initiatives118.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Map of the research site. Software information and data source: Map generated using ArcGIS version 10.8 (https://www.esri.com/en-us/arcgis/products/arcgis-desktop). The map was clipped from a publicly available China administrative boundary dataset (source: iGISMap, https://www.igismap.com/download-china-administrative-boundary-gis-data-for-national-province-and-more/).

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The Ulat Front Banner is situated in the eastern part of the Loop Plain, bordered by the Yellow River and encompassing parts of the Yinshan Mountains and the Hetao Plain111. The area experiences a temperate continental climate with an annual average temperature between 6 and 7 °C, and temperature profiles are visualized in Fig. 2. This climate supports a mix of agricultural activities and natural habitats119.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Monthly total radiation and dry-bulb temperature profiles in Ningyang County. The dataset is provided by Fundamental Data Sharing Platform for Building Energy Efficiency Design site, Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology (https://buildingdata.xauat.edu.cn).

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In light of economic activities and infrastructure, Bayannur, within which Ulat Front Banner is located, is a significant agricultural hub in Inner Mongolia117,120. The Hetao irrigation area, one of Asia’s largest gravity irrigation systems, enables extensive farming across more than 670,000 hectares121—the town benefits from this infrastructure, facilitating diverse agricultural activities. Most households do not earn their living by farming but only have small-scale vegetable plots. Most of the young labourers go to the towns or neighbouring cities, or even abroad, to work, and most of those who stay in the town are older people and children. The efficiency of residential base use in the town is not high, and there is a certain amount of unused rural residential bases122.

In the context of historical and policy impact, Since 1978, the town has experienced significant changes due to China’s economic reforms123. These reforms promoted advanced agricultural technologies and reformed land use policies, which enhanced productivity and land management practices115. In 2017, the introduction of the rural revitalisation strategy furthered these efforts by improving homestead policies and living standards. This comprehensive strategy aimed at sustainable development by integrating economic, social, and ecological considerations122.

The town’s location within the Ulat Front Banner of Bayannur offers a unique blend of agricultural potential, cultural heritage, and environmental challenges. Historical policy reforms and ongoing development initiatives have shaped its growth, positioning it well for a sustainable future.

Data collection

Considering the first method of the questionnaire survey, data was collected through a structured questionnaire distributed via the town committee’s WeChat group to facilitate efficient gathering. This questionnaire was designed to cover a wide range of factors influencing the use of rural residential bases from the perspective of local households, as shown in “Appendix 1”. It included five primary sections: household characteristics, residential base usage, economic factors, management of residential bases, and humanistic factors. The household characteristics section gathered information on age, educational level, family size, and composition of each household’s agricultural and non-agricultural labour force. Questions on residential base usage focused on aspects like the size of the residential base, presence of ancestral bases, housing types, status of unused housing, origins of unused land, and the construction year of unused houses. The economic factors section addressed total annual household income and the primary sources of income, distinguishing between agricultural and non-agricultural activities. The management section included questions on participants’ awareness and understanding of policies governing unused residential bases and their knowledge of relevant legal frameworks. Finally, the humanistic factors section explored respondents’ satisfaction with the location and environment of their residential base, emotional attachment to the property, willingness to live with family members, future living plans, and interest in working in town.

Regarding the sampling approach, a stratified sampling method was used to ensure a representative sample. The town was divided into strata based on geographic and demographic features such as age distribution, household size, and economic activity levels. Households were then randomly selected from each stratum to participate in the survey. Out of 9223 households approached, 6493 provided valid responses, resulting in a response rate of 70.4%.

To ensure the reliability and validity of the data collected, the questionnaire was pre-tested with a small group of villagers to refine and clarify questions where needed. Field investigation and interviews with local villagers and town committee members further supplemented the survey data, offering in-depth insights into the various factors influencing the idleness of rural residential bases.

For the second method, a field investigation was conducted to observe the status of unused rural residential bases. Interviews with farmers, their neighbours, and village committee officials provided first-hand data and insights into the villagers’ awareness of relevant policies and their attitudes toward unused residential bases. This approach facilitated a deeper understanding of homestead conditions, allowing for the classification of different types of unused rural residential bases and guiding the development of targeted governance strategies.

Data analysis

To thoroughly analyse the factors influencing the status of unused rural residential bases, these bases have been divided into two categories: unused rural residential bases and used rural residential bases. This classification allows for a more targeted investigation into the specific characteristics that may contribute to unused rural residential bases. Based on data gathered from extensive fieldwork, various variables likely to be associated with the unused status of these residential bases have been identified and will be systematically evaluated.

Considering the questionnaire survey, data analysis was performed using a binary logistic regression model to identify significant factors contributing to the unused rural residential bases. This statistical model examined the relationship between various independent variables, including household characteristics and economic factors, and the dependent variable of residential base idleness. To ensure the reliability and validity of the collected data, the questionnaire was pre-tested with a small group of villagers to improve clarity and relevance. Field observations and interviews with residents and town committee members were also conducted, providing comprehensive insights into factors influencing unused residential bases. The rigorous data collection and analytical process underpin the reliability of these findings and lay a strong foundation for tailored governance measures suitable for local conditions. This model is particularly suited for scenarios where the dependent variable is dichotomous117, in this case, whether a rural residential base is unused. The model is structured as Eq. (1):

$$Logit\left(P\right)=\text{ln}\left(\frac{P}{1-P}\right)={\upbeta }_{0}+{\upbeta }_{1}{\text{X}}_{1}+{\upbeta }_{2}{\text{X}}_{2}+\cdots +{\upbeta }_{n}{X}_{n}+{\upmu }_{n}$$
(1)

In Eq. (1), P represents the probability of unused homestead land, β0 is the constant term, and β1, β2,…, βn are the parameters to be estimated, i.e., the regression coefficients. X1, X2,…, Xn represent various independent variables encompassing five aspects: household characteristics, homestead usage characteristics, economic factors, homestead management, and cultural factors. μn denotes the random error term.

SPSS 26.0 software is utilised for the analysis to perform the logistic regression. This software provides robust tools for statistical analysis, offering various functionalities to handle logistic regression, including diagnostics, estimation of coefficients, and interpretation of results124. This approach highlights the direct impacts of specific variables on the likelihood of a rural residential base being unused and allows for the adjustment of potential confounders, thus enhancing the reliability of the findings.

As for variable selection and coding, “Appendix 2” provides a framework for understanding the encoding and selection process applied to each variable in the analysis of rural residential base idleness. To facilitate the binary logistic regression model, each original categorical variable is decomposed into dummy variables, representing individual subcategories with a binary indicator. This method enhances the model’s interpretability by allowing a clear comparison among distinct categories while establishing a reference group for each variable, which serves as the baseline against which other subcategories are measured.

The age variable (X1) is one example of how this encoding is applied: it divides age into specific groups (31–40, 41–50, 51–60, and 61 and above), each represented as a dummy variable where “1” indicates inclusion in the age group, and “0” otherwise, with the 18–30 age group acting as the reference. This approach captures potential variations in homestead usage across life stages while providing a comparative framework.

Similarly, the education level variable (X2) stratifies educational attainment into categories: “middle school,” “high school,” and “college or above,” with “primary school or below” as the reference category. This encoding respects the hierarchical structure of education as an ordinal variable, revealing whether higher educational levels significantly influence the likelihood of rural homestead idleness.

“Appendix 2” also includes variables tied to economic indicators, such as “annual family income” (X9) and “income source” (X10), both of which reflect the financial aspects influencing residential base use. By encoding income into discrete bands, with the lowest income level (10,000–30,000 yuan) as the reference, the analysis can explore whether higher earnings contribute to a higher propensity for unused land due to an increased capacity for purchasing additional properties elsewhere. Similarly, income source is coded to compare primary agricultural income (the reference) against part-time agricultural, part-time non-agricultural, and full-time non-agricultural sources, which helps examine the extent to which diversification in income sources may drive land idleness.

Variables reflecting social and cultural attitudes, such as “emotional attachment to homesteads” (X14) and “future residential plans” (X17), use a similar encoding process. In X14, for instance, the degree of attachment is represented by dummies for “general” and “unfocused” attachment, with “strong attachment” serving as the reference. This allows the model to identify if weaker attachments to family land impact its likelihood of being unused. Similarly, in X17, future residential intent is encoded with urban residence as the reference, contrasting those undecided or planning rural residence.

In terms of data analysis of field investigation, the first step in the classification method involved field visits, where the status of homesteads was observed, and physical conditions such as the level of construction, signs of deterioration, or abandonment were documented. The researchers also conducted in-depth interviews with residents to understand the reasons behind the abandonment of specific properties. These conversations provided insight into the socio-economic and cultural factors influencing residential base use decisions. For example, interviews helped reveal the impact of migration patterns, inheritance practices, and financial constraints on homestead usage.

Next, the data collected through the field visits and interviews were analysed to identify recurring patterns or factors contributing to unused rural residential bases. The primary factors considered for classification included the progress of construction (whether the property was partially built, demolished, or completely abandoned), the current ownership status (whether the land was inherited or vacated due to migration), and the physical condition of the property (whether it was in a state of disrepair). Researchers paid particular attention to socio-economic variables, such as whether the landowner had a permanent residence elsewhere, whether the property was used for agricultural purposes, or whether the household had sufficient financial means to maintain the property.

After identifying these key characteristics, the unused homesteads were grouped into categories based on shared attributes. This process involved examining the essential characteristics of each homestead and classifying them accordingly. The classifications were grounded in observable factors such as construction status, usage patterns, and the socio-cultural context of the household. By grouping homesteads based on these characteristics, the researchers were able to develop a clearer understanding of the various types of unused rural residential bases and the underlying causes of their underutilization.

While binary logistic regression provides valuable insights into the key drivers of unused rural residential bases, it is important to acknowledge the limitations inherent in the chosen methods and the steps to mitigate limitations.

One limitation of using binary logistic regression is the potential for multicollinearity among the independent variables, where a high correlation between predictors can distort the regression results117. To address this, the current research conducted a multicollinearity test and ensured that all variables’ Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) values were below the threshold of 10, indicating that multicollinearity was not a significant concern. This testing enabled a confident interpretation of the effects of individual variables without the interference of redundant predictors.

Additionally, the self-reported nature of the survey data may introduce potential biases, particularly with variables such as income, emotional attachment to land, and future residential plans. Respondents may not always provide accurate or consistent responses, which could impact the reliability of the data. To mitigate this, this research conducted a pre-test of the questionnaire with a small sample, allowing it to refine questions for clarity and consistency. The current research also supplemented the survey data with direct field observations and interviews with local villagers and town committee members, providing additional qualitative insights to complement and cross-check the survey findings.

While these limitations exist, the steps taken to address them—such as multicollinearity testing, refining the survey instrument, and supplementing quantitative data with qualitative insights—enhance the robustness of methods.

In a nutshell, Fig. 3 illustrates a methodological framework for a research project focusing on unused rural residential bases in China. It begins with a preparation stage where objectives are defined and progresses through data collection, which includes field investigations and questionnaire surveys conducted via WeChat. Data analysis follows, utilising preliminary analysis and binary regression to validate findings mutually. The study concludes with result interpretation, where regression results are combined with field data to propose targeted management strategies, and ends with conclusions and recommendations, synthesising findings to provide policy suggestions.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Source: author.

The detailed technology roadmap of this work.

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Results and analysis

Factors contributing to the unused rural residential bases

Binary logistic regression analysis was conducted on all the variables. Before the analysis, a multicollinearity test addressed potential model distortion caused by linear correlations between the independent variables. The Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) value was found to be less than 10, indicating that there was no multicollinearity between the independent variables. All data variables were then imported into the binary logistic model for regression analysis using the entry method. The Hosmer–Lemeshow (HL) test was used to evaluate the model’s goodness of fit.

The results of the HL test are shown in Table 1; generally speaking, the critical value of chi-square with 8 degrees of freedom is 13.3 at a 10% level of significance, and the chi-square with 8 degrees of freedom is 4.2, which is smaller than the standard level of 13.3 and the significance of 0.8 is more significant than 0.05. Hence, the HL test proves no apparent difference between the prediction result and the real value, and the model has a good fit.

Table 1 Hosmer–Lemeshow test.
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The regression results in “Appendix 3” reflect an understanding of factors associated with homestead idleness in rural areas. Below is a category-wise interpretation of these findings, highlighting the effects of household characteristics, residential base usage, economic factors, management of residential bases, and humanistic factors on the likelihood of homestead idleness.

Household characteristics, encompassing age, educational level, family size, and labour force, show varied associations with homestead idleness. Age is insignificant primarily except for the oldest category, “61 and above,” which has a statistically significant negative coefficient of − 0.863 (p = 0.010). This finding implies that older household heads are less likely to leave homesteads unused, suggesting a rooted connection to rural life that deters them from leaving these properties unused. Younger groups, meanwhile, appear to lack significant influence on homestead usage patterns, likely due to their greater flexibility in relocating and tendency to prioritise urban migration. The educational level shows that higher education correlates positively with idleness, as demonstrated by a coefficient of 1.2 (p = 0.004) for households with a college education or higher. This aligns with expectations that better-educated individuals have more access to urban employment, leading to increased rural homestead idleness as urban life draws them away.

In contrast, primary and middle school levels do not display significant effects, suggesting that households with lower educational attainment have limited opportunities for relocation and maintain a stronger dependence on rural residences. Family size significantly impacts unused rural residential bases, with coefficients of 0.6 (p = 0.05) for households of 4–6 members and 0.6 (p = 0.02) for households of 7 or more. Larger families correlate with reduced idleness, likely due to higher demand for space within the homestead and a propensity for multigenerational occupancy. This structure ensures continued use of the property, even if some family members engage in migrant work. Although agricultural labour force presence (X4) does not yield statistically significant results, the coefficients for small and large agricultural labour forces are negative, indicating that agricultural engagement may somewhat disincentivise homestead idleness by anchoring households closer to the land.

Usage characteristics of the homestead, such as the size of the residential base, ancestral presence, and housing type, offer significant insights into idleness trends. Residential base size shows contrasting effects based on base area, with properties sized 101–150 m2 showing a significant positive coefficient of 0.8 (p < 0.01), indicating that moderate-sized homesteads are more likely to be unused. This may be due to perceptions of limited utility or market value that decrease their desirability for active use. Conversely, properties exceeding 200 m2 have a significant negative coefficient of − 1.3 (p = 0.01), indicating less likelihood of idleness, likely due to greater utility or perceived value associated with larger properties. While not statistically significant, Ancestral homestead presence exhibits a positive coefficient of 0.2 (p = 0.5), suggesting a trend where ancestral properties, often located in less favourable or isolated areas, are more prone to idleness. The housing type reflects residential patterns, where multi-story or single-story homes reveal no significant effects on idleness. However, they reflect different dwelling styles, with older housing types potentially correlating with increased idleness due to lower comfort and modernity than newer dwellings.

Economic variables, including household income levels and income sources, reveal significant insights into homestead idleness. Income over 90,000 CNY correlates positively with idleness, with a coefficient of 0.8 (p = 0.01), suggesting that higher-income households have greater residential options and often favour urban relocation, leading to increased rural homestead idleness. Households earning 70,000–90,000 CNY show a similar trend with a marginally significant coefficient (p = 0.08), reinforcing the link between income flexibility and residential choices that may prioritise urban locations. Lower income levels (30,000–50,000 and 50,000–70,000 CNY) do not significantly affect idleness, indicating that households in these ranges have limited mobility and are, therefore, more likely to maintain active use of rural homesteads. Income source also plays a critical role, with full-time non-agricultural income positively associated with idleness, evidenced by a significant coefficient of 1.1 (p < 0.01). This finding underscores that households economically sustained by non-agricultural work are more likely to leave their rural homesteads unused, as they are more likely to settle permanently in urban areas. Part-time agriculture and part-time non-agricultural income sources do not exhibit significant effects, suggesting that mixed-income households may lack the stability needed for permanent relocation and thus retain rural homesteads for continued use.

Management factors influence rural land use practices, particularly awareness of policies and legal frameworks surrounding homestead idleness. Knowledge of homestead disposal policies and related legal frameworks shows mixed significance. Households with general policy knowledge have a coefficient of 0.6 (p = 0.05), and those with unclear knowledge have a coefficient of 0.6 (p = 0.02), positively associated with idleness. This suggests that policy awareness is inversely related to effective utilisation, possibly because general or vague knowledge does not provide the necessary incentive for action. The implications are that policies and laws regarding homestead disposal might not be effectively communicated or are insufficiently impactful in motivating rural households to manage unused land actively. This gap in effective policy dissemination underscores the need for targeted information campaigns encouraging compliance and proactive homestead management. Improved legal awareness could decrease idleness rates by equipping households with the understanding needed to navigate homestead regulations and explore alternative land use strategies.

Humanistic factors capture emotional and cultural considerations that impact homestead management decisions. Emotional attachment to the homestead exhibits a significant positive association with idleness, with a coefficient of 0.842 (p = 0.008), suggesting that households with strong sentimental ties are more likely to retain unused properties, possibly due to cultural values or heritage considerations that prioritise holding onto family land regardless of its functional use. This finding implies that emotional factors can act as a barrier to the practical utilisation of rural properties, as households might prioritise tradition over functional use, contributing to a higher likelihood of unused homesteads. Conversely, willingness to relinquish the homestead upon urban relocation is significantly associated with decreased idleness, as shown by a negative coefficient of − 1.3 (p = 0.01). This suggests that households open to surrendering rural homesteads upon city settlement are less likely to maintain unused properties because they recognise the financial or logistical burdens of retaining unused rural land. The implications of this result suggest that programs encouraging urban residents to release rural properties formally might effectively reduce rural idleness rates. This dynamic emphasises the value of integrating emotional and practical considerations in rural land management policies, encouraging households to balance sentimental values with efficient land use practices.

In summary, the logistic regression analysis reveals a complex interplay of demographic, economic, and humanistic factors that influence the likelihood of homestead idleness in rural areas. Household characteristics such as age and family size demonstrate that older individuals and larger families are less likely to leave homesteads unused, emphasising the roles of attachment and household demand in land use. Economic factors, notably higher income and full-time non-agricultural employment, correlate with increased idleness, providing greater flexibility for urban relocation. While residential base characteristics, including homestead size and the presence of ancestral properties, suggest that moderate-sized or culturally significant properties are more prone to idleness, humanistic factors, such as emotional attachment, underscore the role of traditional values in land retention decisions. The findings highlight that awareness of policies regarding unused homesteads may not effectively reduce idleness, suggesting a need for more transparent communication and support for proactive land management. Together, these insights provide valuable guidance for policymakers aiming to reduce homestead idleness by addressing economic mobility, enhancing policy awareness, and encouraging households to balance emotional values with efficient land-use practices.

Field investigation results and classification of unused rural residential bases

The classification of unused homesteads can be regarded as a further subdivision of its essence and causes based on its concept115,125. The differentiation research, according to the differences of its essential characteristics, has positive significance and helps in the statistical identification and management of unused homesteads in actual operation126.

Through field investigation in the sample village and discussions with local village committee members and residents, it was identified that the village primarily faces five types of unused rural residential bases, including unused residential bases with incomplete construction after development, unused residential bases left undeveloped after demolition, inherited unused residential bases, unused residential bases resulting from migration, and dilapidated unused residential bases.

  1. (1)

    Unused residential bases with incomplete construction after development. Farmer A, in 2015, demolished an old house on the roadside and built a house with a shop on the first floor and a residence on the second floor for rental.

The first floor is a store, and the second floor is a residential dual-use building for rent, but because of the lack of funds to build the house, the husband and wife are constantly working outside. The house was stopped after pouring a good framework, and so far, there is still no resumption of construction, as presented in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Source: author.

Unfinished unused homestead after construction.

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  1. (2)

    Unused residential bases left undeveloped after demolition. Farmer B, who used to work at a yard in the town dismantling electronic waste, was banned from dismantling electronic waste in 2012 when the local government began to ban this environmentally polluting Industry. The family moved out of the yard and dismantled some of the houses in the yard because they could not continue their business, and the houses are still in a state of abandonment and have not been rebuilt as plotted in Fig. 5.

    Fig. 5
    figure 5

    Source: author.

    Unused homestead after demolition.

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  2. (3)

    Inherited unused residential bases. Farmer C, who is mainly engaged in farming in the town, applied for a separate residence base to build a house after he started a family, while his parents applied for a residence base to build a house (Fig. 6). After his parents passed away, he inherited his parents’ old house, but he also had his own house, so the house he inherited is still unused.

    Fig. 6
    figure 6

    Source: author.

    Inherited unused homestead.

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  3. (4)

    Unused residential bases resulting from migration. Farmer D, the whole family, works outside the home and has purchased a commercial house in the city. They only return to the town during the New Year holidays, so their houses are in an unoccupied and unused state all year round, as shown in Fig. 7.

    Fig. 7
    figure 7

    Source: author.

    Move-out type unused homestead.

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  4. (5)

    Dilapidated unused residential bases. Farmer E, an older woman, lives alone in an old brick-structure house (Fig. 8).

    Fig. 8
    figure 8

    Source: author.

    Dilapidated old unused homestead.

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Because the house is in a state of disrepair, the roof often leaks, and her children have hired someone to repair it many times, but they have been unable to solve the problem. She moved in with her son. After no one lived there, the house became overgrown with weeds, suffered more severe damage, and even showed signs of collapsing.

Rural residential bases are an integral part of rural land resources, and their primary function is residence115. In essence, rural residential bases are rural settlement construction land for rural residents to build houses127. Therefore, this research considers whether residential bases typically perform their residential function, an essential criterion for judging whether rural residential bases are unused. If a residential base is state of not fully utilising its residential function, it can be regarded as a completely unused residential base; if a residential base has the conditions to satisfy the residential function but due to the farmer’s reasons, the residential base does not fully utilise its residential function, it can be regarded as an incompletely unused residential base.

Based on the above criteria and incorporating previous classification concepts, the classification results of unused homestead types for the sample village are presented in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9
figure 9

Source: author.

Classification diagram of unused homestead land.

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Discussion and analysis

In analysing factors associated with unused rural residential bases, a binary logistic regression model was employed, identifying several critical factors influencing whether a residential base remains unused. Household characteristics, particularly family size, were found to play a significant role in land utilisation. Families with larger household sizes (4–6 or 7 members and above) were less likely to maintain unused residential bases. This finding is underscored by regression coefficients of 0.6 (p = 0.05) for households with 4–6 members and 0.6 (p = 0.02) for households with 7 or more members, indicating that larger families have greater space requirements, reducing the probability of unused rural residential bases. This trend suggests that multigenerational households, more common in rural areas, tend to retain and actively use their residential bases as they fulfil immediate spatial and familial needs.

Similar patterns have been observed in other countries, such as India, where larger families—often extended families living together—are more likely to keep their rural homes in use due to the combined housing needs of multiple generations83,84,128. A study in Brazil also found that rural households with more members were less likely to abandon their properties, as family members often rely on the space for living and working purposes17. In contrast, studies from Western countries such as the United States and Canada report a trend where smaller family sizes in rural areas, particularly in more developed regions, are associated with a higher likelihood of land idleness, as fewer family members may be able to manage or occupy the rural properties30,33.

Conversely, high-income families demonstrated a higher propensity for residential bases idleness, especially those with annual household incomes exceeding 90,000 RMB. This finding is consistent with studies in developed nations, such as the United States and Germany, where wealthier households were more likely to purchase urban housing, leaving rural residential bases unused35,49,56. In these regions, increased economic stability allowed for a greater focus on urban living, reducing the necessity of maintaining rural properties30,51. Similarly, in the current research, economic diversification, as seen in households with non-agricultural income, contributed to land idleness, several findings mirrored in rural areas in Latin America, where urban migration and non-agricultural employment trends have led to unused rural residential bases93,109,125. The likelihood of land idleness was significantly elevated for these households, with a regression coefficient of 0.8 (p = 0.01). This correlation may be attributed to the financial flexibility that higher-income households possess, enabling them to acquire urban housing options and, consequently, reduce reliance on their rural residential properties. Similarly, households deriving income primarily from non-agricultural sources showed a higher probability of maintaining unused residential bases, with a coefficient of 1.1 (p < 0.05) for full-time non-agricultural income. This outcome highlights that economic diversification allows these households to secure stable urban residences, diminishing the necessity for rural homesteads.

Educational attainment also emerged as a significant factor influencing bases idleness, with households where members had a college education or higher more likely to leave rural residential bases unused129,130. This observation is consistent with global patterns. Research in India and South Korea has shown that higher education correlates with urban migration, as educated individuals seek better employment opportunities in cities21,65,84. These findings underscore the role of educational and employment opportunities in shaping rural–urban migration patterns. Households with members holding a college education or higher demonstrated a significantly greater tendency to leave rural properties unused, evidenced by a coefficient of 1.1 (p < 0.01). This may be due to the increased employment opportunities in urban centres for individuals with higher education, prompting relocation and reducing engagement with rural homesteads.

Governance measures and strategic interventions

Based on the findings, several specific recommendations for policymakers have emerged. One of the most important actions is the mandatory recovery and clearance of abandoned residential properties. Often left unfinished or neglected, these properties present a significant issue for rural communities. Not only do they detract from the visual appeal of villages, but they also represent an inefficient land use, which could be better utilized for housing or agricultural purposes. Enforcing the reclamation of these unused properties would help revitalize communities, improve the physical environment, and make more land available for productive use. In addition, villagers should receive financial incentives to release inherited residential bases, particularly in cases where the land is no longer in use. Offering compensation could help address the emotional attachment that many families have to ancestral properties, which often prevents land from being put to productive use. This financial support would encourage the relinquishment of surplus or underutilized land, making it available for repurposing for public infrastructure or allocation to landless families, thus maximizing the land’s utility and promoting more efficient land use.

Furthermore, it is vital to promote local economic opportunities by supporting the development of industries tailored to rural contexts. Policymakers could reduce rural–urban migration by creating jobs and keeping residents within their communities by focusing on sectors like agritourism, local services, and small-scale manufacturing. This would foster economic growth and help mitigate the issue of unused residential bases by maintaining active, vibrant villages.

Future research should address several key areas to provide deeper insights into managing unused rural residential bases. Longitudinal studies would be particularly valuable, tracking how migration patterns, changing economic conditions, and policy reforms influence land abandonment over time. These studies could reveal the long-term effects of migration on rural land use and offer critical data to help design policies that address the root causes of land idleness. Comparative research across rural regions with unique cultural, economic, and environmental characteristics could offer a more comprehensive understanding of effective governance strategies. Such studies would provide policymakers with evidence of the most successful approaches in different contexts and how they might be adapted to meet specific regional challenges. Integrating Geographic Information Systems (GIS) into land management strategies represents another promising avenue for future research131,132. GIS could map the spatial distribution of unused land in rural areas, enabling policymakers to identify hotspots of underutilized properties and better target interventions133,134. Furthermore, research into community-based governance models could yield valuable insights into how local governance and active community participation can create more sustainable and locally accepted land management practices. This research could also investigate how the involvement of local stakeholders in decision-making processes can lead to more effective and context-specific policies that reflect the unique needs of each community.

However, managing unused rural residential bases comes with several challenges that must be addressed to ensure the effectiveness of any proposed governance strategies. One of the main difficulties is the deep emotional connection many rural residents have to inherit land127. In many cases, land is a financial asset and a symbol of family heritage115. This emotional attachment can lead to resistance to selling or using land for other purposes, even when it would be in the best interest of the community110. To overcome this, policymakers must design compensation packages that provide financial incentives and consider land ownership’s cultural and personal significance. Another significant challenge is enforcing land use policies, particularly in rural areas with limited monitoring and enforcement resources. Even when policies are in place, there is often a lack of effective implementation, especially when local authorities face capacity constraints. Strengthening local governance structures, providing adequate training, and ensuring local officials have the resources to enforce policies will be critical to addressing this challenge. Furthermore, financial constraints will likely be a significant barrier to implementing large-scale land recovery projects. Without adequate funding, many proposed measures may not be feasible. Policymakers may need to explore alternative funding mechanisms, such as public–private partnerships or the allocation of national funds specifically targeted at rural revitalization projects. Finally, while the promotion of local industries presents a promising solution, it faces its own set of challenges. Many rural areas lack the necessary infrastructure, such as transportation, access to markets, and skilled labour, to attract and sustain new industries. Overcoming these barriers will require substantial investment in infrastructure development, as well as strategies to enhance the skills of the local workforce. Only by addressing these challenges can rural communities effectively manage unused residential bases and ensure that it contributes to broader goals of rural revitalization and sustainable development.

Limitations and future research directions

Despite the strengths of the governance strategies proposed in this study, several limitations should be considered. The data sample is limited to Xin’an Town, which may restrict the generalizability of the findings to other rural areas with different cultural, economic, or geographic characteristics. Additionally, while binary logistic regression provides insights into associations between variables and land idleness, it may not establish causality. This study cannot confirm that factors like income or family size directly cause land idleness, as other factors may also be at play. Lastly, the reliance on survey data may be subject to response biases, such as inaccurate self-reporting of income or emotional attachment to land, which could affect the precision of the results.

Future research should address these limitations by incorporating data from a broader range of rural communities across diverse regions to enhance the generalizability of the findings. Longitudinal studies or experimental designs are necessary to establish causal relationships between land idleness and its influencing factors. Furthermore, integrating spatial analysis tools would allow for more detailed examinations of land utilization patterns and help identify geographic clusters of unused land. Exploring community-based governance models and improving policy communication would also be valuable for fostering more inclusive and participatory land management processes in rural areas.

Conclusions

The logistic regression analysis reveals that household characteristics, such as family size and income level, influence land utilization. Larger families are less likely to leave land unused, while higher-income households, particularly those with non-agricultural incomes, tend to have a higher propensity for idleness due to urban migration opportunities. These results emphasize the need for a nuanced approach to land governance, balancing economic incentives with cultural considerations.

In response to these findings, several governance strategies have been proposed, including compulsory recovery of unused land, paid withdrawal incentives for inherited properties, promotion of local industries to reduce migration, and stricter enforcement of policies such as “one household, one residence.” These strategies address the factors contributing to land idleness, promote more efficient land use, and align with broader rural revitalization efforts.

While this study provides valuable insights, it is not without limitations. The data, confined to Xin’an Town, may not fully represent other rural areas with varying cultural and environmental conditions. Additionally, the reliance on self-reported survey data introduces potential biases. Future research should expand the sample to include diverse rural communities and integrate technologies like Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to map land use patterns. Exploring community-based and digital governance models could also improve the efficiency and inclusivity of land management practices in rural areas.

Overall, this study demonstrates the potential of targeted governance strategies to improve land use efficiency and support the goals of rural revitalization and sustainable development in China.