Figure 8
(A) Thermal runaway (TR) characteristics of the central heated cell (Cell-#34) in a 3 × 3 LIB module under different cell spacing conditions (1, 3, 5, and 7 mm). The temperature curves represent the core temperature at the geometric center of Cell-#34, extracted via a fixed thermal probe and (B) Thermal failure behavior of a side cell in the 3 × 3 configuration, showing core temperature variation under the same spacing conditions. The results highlight the impact of cell spacing on TR onset and peak temperature.
