Introduction

Teacher preparation programs play a large part in the development of not only pedagogical skills but also the general ecological awareness of prospective teachers. This importance is further heightened in the area of special education. Ecological Systems Theory (EST), or Bioecological Systems Theory, provides a synoptic model for examining the way several layers of environmental factors—from close interpersonal interactions and general cultural values—impact human development. These include the microsystem (i.e., family, peers, school), mesosystem (interactions among microsystems), exosystem (indirect settings like education policy), macrosystem (broader sociocultural expectations), and chronosystem (temporal and historical forces)1,2.

In Saudi Arabia, these environmental layers uniquely intersect with cultural, institutional, and religious principles that shape the formation of preservice teachers. For instance, Islam is a predominant religious and cultural institution that has a powerful influence on career decision-making and attitudes towards humanitarian work. Additionally, the presence of centralized education policy and gender-segregated schools creates unique exosystem-level effects that are not commonly observed in Western school contexts. A knowledge of these ecosystems in the Saudi environment is needed to enhance the support provided to teachers of special education, particularly those dealing with students with developmental disabilities.

Whereas international research has come to embrace Educational Science Theory (EST) in examining teacher preparation3,4 a significant gap exists in utilizing these frameworks within the Saudi Arabian context.

Specifically, there is a lack of knowledge regarding how Saudi Arabian preservice teachers feel and interpret the various ecological systems that impact their personal, academic, and professional development. This is specifically relevant given the recent endeavors of Saudi Arabia to reform special education and align it with Vision 2030 goals. This research explores the perceptions of Saudi Arabian male preservice special education teachers, with a specific consideration of how their ecological systems impact their career choice reasons for teaching and experiences in teacher preparation programs. Since research has not been conducted on how ecological systems shape preservice special educator development in Saudi Arabia, the following question is raised by this study: How do preservice special education teachers in Riyadh Province perceive their ecological systems?

this study clarifies a critical research gap: the underutilization of Ecological Systems Theory (EST) in understanding preservice special education teacher development within Saudi Arabia’s unique cultural and institutional context. Unlike existing international studies, this research contributes a culturally specific application of EST, offering insights into how religion, family, and policy shape professional identity. To strengthen the theoretical foundation, more recent literature (post-2020) has been integrated to align with current global discourse. This contextualized perspective expands the scope of EST, making a novel contribution to both Saudi teacher education and ecological theory applications.

Literature review

The use of Ecological Systems Theory (EST has emerged as a sound framework to analyse teacher preparation and professional development in various educational contexts. EST conceptualizes human development as influenced by interrelated and nested systems, thereby offering a multi-dimensional lens to examine ways in which preservice teachers are affected by forces encompassing family systems, cultural milieus, institutional systems, and national policy.

International research has attested to the promise of using EST in teacher education. Studies have shown that preservice teachers who are taught under an ecological framework are more culturally sensitive and contextually aware5. Other findings emphasize how EST enables prospective teachers to develop a fluid understanding of professional identity, especially in settings where multiple social and institutional pressures intersect3. Longitudinal evidence also indicates that teachers prepared through an ecological framework have a higher probability of remaining in high-needs schools, attributed to their ability to thrive in challenging educational settings and reflect critically on their instructional practices4.

Yet, all these international studies should be interpreted with care in the Saudi setting, where teacher preparation is shaped by distinctive religious, cultural, and institutional circumstances. For instance, prior research has argued for the usefulness of EST in addressing diversity in teacher education within multicultural settings6. While applicable to international contexts, teacher preparation in Saudi Arabia is more directly shaped by religious norms, state-driven curricula, and gender-segregated schools—forces that transform how ecological systems arise and interact.

There is growing literature within the Saudi Arabian and Gulf contexts that supports the applicability of EST to special education. For example, one study investigated motivations for Saudi Arabian students to specialize in special education and found that family and community expectations (microsystem-level variables) were especially influential7. Another study examined the preparation of Saudi students with disabilities for postsecondary transitions and identified coordination gaps at the exosystem and macrosystem levels8. Additional research recognized that the use of evidence-based interventions and transition planning among Saudi teachers is frequently affected by religious values (macrosystem) and limited faculty involvement (mesosystem), thereby validating the explanatory power of EST for professional development challenges9,10.

Further regional studies highlight similar dynamics. For instance, one study found that online preservice education in the UAE was ineffective in preparing teachers to meet actual special education needs—a gap at the exosystem level11. Similarly, another study observed that the career development of persons with intellectual disabilities in Saudi Arabia is frequently constrained by fragmented institutional and vocational support systems12. These findings align with this study’s participants, who described the influence of both cultural reinforcement (macrosystem) and institutional variability (exosystem and mesosystem).

Despite the theoretical strength of Ecological Systems Theory (EST), prior research cautions that its application demands intricate, multi-level research designs and long-term data collection13. This complexity is especially relevant in Saudi Arabia, where teacher education research is still evolving within systemic frameworks and methodologies. In conclusion, while foundational studies provide strong theoretical underpinnings, they must be enhanced with contextualized insights. This study contributes to the field by applying EST to Saudi preservice special education teachers, offering a culturally and institutionally grounded understanding of how ecological systems shape their development.

Methodology

Research methodology

The present research utilized a qualitative phenomenological research design to investigate the perceptions of Saudi preservice special education teachers on how ecological systems influence their professional development. A qualitative research design is best suited to conduct an in-depth inquiry into participants’ lived experiences, assumptions, and situational interpretations14,15. The aim was not to make generalizations but to learn about how personal judgments were formed in distinctive ecological environments, in accordance with Ecological Systems Theory.

Participant recruitment

Participants were selected through purposive sampling under three different inclusion criteria: (1) being enrolled in a special education teacher preparation program in intellectual disabilities or autism; (2) having graduated from the said program; and (3) being affiliated with a university in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The research particularly aimed at preservice teachers who are affiliated with King Saud University (KSU) and Shaqra University (SU), which are two universities that have initiated special education programs.

While snowball sampling was mentioned, the final sample was composed of only the initial five participants located through consultation with special education student group faculty. The five participants were not supplemented by referrals; thus, snowball sampling was not effectively employed to increase the sample. That particular sentence has been deleted in this version for the sake of clarity.

Whereas the original manuscript read “maximum variation sampling,” the homogeneity of the population—five male participants aged 22 to 25 years, from two universities—does not meet this criterion. Therefore, the phrase was revised to an intended, criterion-based sampling plan for gathering the opinions of a specific population rather than achieving maximum demographic diversity.

Participant profiles

The final sample consisted of five male teachers, three specializing in intellectual disabilities and two in autism. The teachers graduated in 2022 and had one to two years of teaching experience. The pseudonyms, specialization, and institutional affiliation of the participants are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Participant pseudonyms and Specializations.
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Data collection procedures

Data were gathered through semi-structured, in-depth interviews, which took between 45 and 90 min. Interviews were carried out face to face in Arabic and subsequently transcribed and translated into English by the researcher.

A guide for the interview was used to ensure consistency across sessions. Key questions included: Practicum experiences, such as the experience with school staff and university supervisors. The perceived influence of family, community, religious, and educational factors on personal growth. The effect of different ecological systems on their professional and career choices.

Follow-up probes were:

Can you give an example of that?

“What do you mean by…?”

“Why was this course significant or insignificant?”

To maximize reliability, the same essential interview questions were asked of each participant. A copy of the full interview protocol is provided upon request in an appendix.

Data analysis

Thematic analysis was conducted using a six-step process as outlined in prior research16:

Familiarization: Audio recordings were transcribed and read several times to facilitate immersion in the data.

Initial coding: More than 100 initial codes were created using open coding, scrutinizing phrases and sentences for latent and semantic meanings17. The codes were first grouped, subsequently reducing these to broader themes.

Reviewing themes: Themes were contrasted with the whole data set for coherence and representativeness.

Defining themes: All the themes were properly defined and supported with direct quotations.

The findings were well structured into a logical story that connects directly to the research query. Despite the fact that inter-coder reliability was not achieved since the researcher conducted the analysis solo, member checking and peer review were employed to increase rigor and minimize bias (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
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Data Analysis Steps.

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Credibility and trustworthiness

To enhance the trustworthiness of the study, several strategies were employed. Member checking was conducted by sharing transcripts and summaries of the findings with participants to verify their accuracy and ensure that their perspectives were correctly represented (Fig. 2). Additionally, a qualitative research colleague conducted a peer review of the coding schemes and thematic analyses to enhance the credibility of the findings. To support transferability, thick description was used by providing rich and detailed accounts of participants’ responses, allowing readers to determine the applicability of the findings to other contexts.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Member Checks Steps.

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Ethical considerations

Ethical approvalfor this study was granted by the Institutional Review Board at Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University (Approval No: SCBR-266-2023). Participants were fully informed about the study’s purpose, confidentiality procedures, and their right to withdraw at any time. Written informed consent was obtained prior to data collection, including consent for the use of anonymized quotes in reporting. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations, including the Declaration of Helsinki and the ethical standards of the institutional and national research committee. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to participation.

Findings

This section presents three primary themes that emerged from interviews with preservice special education teachers: (1) Common Values and Cultural Factors, (2) Interaction with Local Government Organizations, and (3) Lacking Communication in Teacher Training. Each of the themes aligns with varying ecological levels in the framework and is preceded by interpretive analysis based on representative quotes from participants.

Shared values and cultural factors

Ecological Systems Framework: Microsystem, Macrosystem, Chronosystem.

Participants repeatedly emphasized the powerful role of family ties, religious beliefs, and cultural values in their career choice and perception of special education. These results emphasize the significant impact of microsystem (family, community) and macrosystem (religion, cultural norms) forces, especially in a Saudi context where collectivist and religious values are highly integrated into daily life and schooling experiences.

The majority of the participants cited family support and a sense of belonging to individuals with disabilities as inspirational factors. Religion was also strongly connected to participants’ vocational aspirations, framed as an extension of Islamic values towards service and knowledge.

“My religion, Islam, motivated me to do good. One good deed is to share knowledge.” (Adam).

My uncle and father are both teachers, and they both agreed with me. (Andrew)

They also described how their immediate surroundings and early guidance from veteran teachers contributed to the development of their skillset and sense of direction:

“There are a lot of instructors in my neighborhood. They have thirty years of experience; therefore, I have picked up many talents from them.” (Amir).

Most preservice teachers indicated that their understanding of students with disabilities had shifted substantially throughout the program, thus confronting earlier misconceptions. The shift acts to highlight an active interplay between beliefs at the microsystem level and learning environments within the mesosystem.

Prior to commencing the program, I used to have the wrongful belief that individuals with autism and special needs could not learn. In my community, I know numerous individuals who share the same thought. (Michael)

Engagement with local government institutions

Ecological systems framework: exosystem

The interactions of participants with state institutions and local educational authorities are a sample of the exosystem level—settings indirectly but powerfully affecting them, shaping the practical concerns of their education. Some participants found the Ministry of Education and local offices to be supportive and effective in the practicum placement process:

“They also provided us with access to resources that are instrumental to our success.” (Andrew).

Nevertheless, not everything was positive. A participant expressed that the process was not suitably personal or in-depth:

“Our relationship with the education administration could be more robust. I was just admitted and sent to a school.” (Amir).

Moreover, participants indicated that faculty development funded by the government (e.g., international scholarships) guaranteed high quality of teaching. Nonetheless, this occasionally created disconnections when faculty members were not sufficiently acquainted with Saudi school settings:

There are a lot of international personnel. Their theoretical knowledge is helpful, but I wish they knew our system more. (Michael)

Communication discrepancies in educator preparation

Ecological systems level: mesosystem

This theme recapitulates the students’ thoughts regarding their learning setting—more particularly, the classroom communication climate with the university instructors. Given that the mesosystem describes interactions among various microsystems (like student and professors), its quality becomes significant in defining the preservice experience.

The participants explained a common lecture-type mode that restricted interaction:

“Program instructors are usually speakers, and I’m a listener. One-way communication wasn’t much fun, really.” (Aaron).

This lack of interactivity led to disengagement:

Throughout the instructional period, my peers remained in anticipation of the instructor’s conclusion of the session. The classmates maintained a state of silence. Others pointed out that some students appeared to be unmotivated—possibly because they had been defaulted into the program, as opposed to opting in: Amir related that he observed a lack of motivation to study in some of his peers. Despite these communication barriers, most participants reported positive interpersonal relationships with faculty outside the classroom, including shared activities like sports: As part of college activities, my lecturers and I played football. That strengthened our relationship.” (Adam) Yet, the contrast between classroom instruction and conversational rapport underscored the the demand for greater pedagogical flexibility and alignment with students’ cultural expectations regarding participation and authority.

Discussion

This study investigated the ways in which ecological systems influence the attitudes and professional preparation of Saudi preservice special education teachers. The findings are interpreted through Ecological Systems Theory (EST), demonstrating the ways in which the different levels of systems—microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem—interact to impact teacher identity, motivation, and preparation experience.

Theme 1: common principles and cultural influence system level: microsystem, macrosystem, chronosystem

The significance of family, religion, and community—two of the most significant microsystem and macrosystem influences—on motivating enrollment in special education was emphasized by participants. Family encouragement, values emanating from Islam, and community mentorship formed a cultural environment that legitimized teaching as a noble profession. This supports recent literature that has emphasized the powerful role of cultural and religious values in Saudi Arabia18,19.

The chronosystem is similarly influential, as these collective values are entrenched in historical and cultural contexts throughout generations. These findings echo the work of20, who argue that teacher decisions are shaped not simply by school organizations but by deep cultural narratives In Saudi Arabia, these narratives appear to position teaching—and particularly special education—as a socially worthwhile profession.

Theme 2: interface with governmental institutions

System level: exosystem

Participants’ experiences with the Ministry of Education and local educational offices describe interactions within the exosystem—systems that have an indirect impact through institutional policies. While the process was viewed by some as effective and positive, others described it as impersonal or disengaged.

State sponsorship of faculty professional development (e.g., overseas study scholarships) was appreciated, although concerns were raised regarding foreign-trained teachers’ lack of contextual familiarity. These results are consistent with findings by Alabdulwahab, who observed that exosystem-level gaps can affect the coherence between policy aspirations and actual classroom practices8.

Theme 3: instructional and communication gaps

Systemic structure: mesosystem

One common complaint was the lecture-style, one-way communication in university classrooms. Participants described feeling disconnected, indicating a mismatch between student and faculty microsystems—an issue situated within the mesosystem. While interpersonal relationships with instructors were generally positive, the instructional practices were perceived as overly formal and lacking in dialogic or participatory engagement. These findings support earlier research by Almughyiri on the limitations of interactive pedagogy in Saudi teacher education9,10.

Notably, although faculty relationships had a positive effect on student well-being, ineffective classroom communication hindered professional growth. This duality highlights how mesosystem dynamics can simultaneously support and restrict learning.

Conclusion and implications

Summary of major findings

The research ascertained that the preservice special education teachers in Saudi Arabia were significantly impacted by ecological systems at various levels. Family, religion, and community microsystem/macrosystem factors initiated their professional decisions. Institutional experiences, particularly with the education ministry and the faculty (exosystem/mesosystem), shaped their beliefs regarding the quality of programs and readiness. Finally, communication practices within the university setting were determined to be a significant barrier to more involvement.

Recommendations

Curriculum Change: Culturally Responsive Teaching. Saudi Arabia teacher education curriculum reform must shift from conventional, content-laden methodologies to embracing culturally responsive teaching. This kind of change necessitates incorporating students’ daily lives, values, and social settings into the instructional model. In this research, participants drew attention to the significant role played by family, religion, and community (microsystem/macrosystem) in their motivation and professional identity. Acknowledging these aspects in the curriculum fosters relevance, assists in identity formation, and enhances higher engagement.

As argued in previous research15, teachers’ professional path and pedagogy are influenced profoundly by their personal, cultural, and community stories. Incorporating such stories into educational program curricula validates preservice teachers’ experiences and enhances programs’ congruence with students’ life contexts. Other scholars also advocate for contextual adaptations, emphasizing that effective teacher preparation in Saudi Arabia must be attuned to local religious and cultural contexts16.

Faculty Training: Contextual Familiarization. Faculty, particularly those who were foreign educated, must be trained in Saudi Arabia’s distinct pedagogical, policy, and institutional culture. Several participants in this research described that while faculty were generally positive, they were not familiar with the local school context and would revert to international examples that were strange to them.

This finding is a confirmation of previous research6, which established that institutional knowledge-field reality mismatches hinder Saudi special education teacher preparation. Other studies also promoted the importance of faculty contextual competence in facilitating effective teacher learning7. Providing new faculty orientation programs with explicit structures or mentoring by veteran teachers from the local context can construct this bridge and achieve mesosystem coherence between the universities and the local schools.

Interactive Pedagogy: Beyond the Lecture.

The vast majority of participants criticized their teacher prep programs for depending on lecture-oriented, one-way instruction. This format discouraged dialogue, minimized participation, and failed to promote the reflective, applied learning required for special educator preparation.

The substitution of passive instructional methods with participatory, student-centered learning activities—problem-solving workshops, cooperative learning, and inquiry-based exercises—is in keeping with researched best practices in higher education. Research has pointed out that teachers of special education are advantaged by experiential, dialogic learning contexts that facilitate experimentation with teaching approaches and receiving constructive feedback21. Other findings likewise suggest active participation and multimodal presentation, particularly with regard to the education of teachers for inclusive pedagogical practice22.

Reflective Practice: Theory in Context. Fostering reflective practice facilitates preservice teachers’ interpretations of how ecological settings—family, religion, social structures—influence their beliefs, attitudes, and pedagogical actions. Reflection helps to link theory practice and practice on the ground, a requirement especially in Saudi Arabia’s highly culturally diverse environments.

Structured reflection about cultural and community factors as part of professional preparation has been proposed in recent research7. Other studies also argue that teacher preparation must include opportunities for reflective inquiry to build responsive, contextualized teachers4.

Policy implications

Promote University-School Partnership (Mesosystem). To strengthen mesosystem relationships, education policy must encourage more collaboration between universities and local schools. This includes practicum experiences that are co-designed, ongoing interaction between university instructors and school mentors, and preservice teachers working on community-based learning.

Students in this research described valuable but inconsistent practicum experiences—a need for structural collaborations is called for. Previous research has described how collaborative planning and feedback between schools and training institutions greatly strengthens the authenticity and relevance of teacher preparation9.

Develop Responsive Exosystem-Level Policies. Practicum placements, recruitment processes, and support services must be designed in a responsive and equitable context. Stakeholders in this study described inconsistencies in the way placements were managed by local education offices, with some having strong support and others having none.

Recent research emphasizes the need to balance national education policies and local implementation strategies6. This requires the development of policies that are not only technically sound but also socially and culturally inclusive, especially regarding special education.

Identify Religion and Culture in Policy (Macrosystem). The educational policy in Saudi Arabia should clearly recognize that the development of educators is significantly shaped by macrosystem factors, including religion, tradition, and cultural identity. This research identified religion, specifically Islam, as a primary driving factor influencing the decision-making processes and teaching philosophies of the participants. Previous studies note that Saudi teacher preparation cannot be effective unless Islamic values and general cultural norms are considered15,16. Their inclusion in training, curriculum, and examination ensures ideological synergy between policy and practice.

Limitations

Sample Limitations. This research targeted only five male preservice special education teachers from two institutions in Riyadh. Saudi Arabian gender segregation laws limited the participation of female students. Consequently, results might be non-generalizable across genders or nations. Contextual Generalizability. Since the research is conducted in a particular cultural and institutional environment, care needs to be exercised when transferring findings to teacher education systems beyond Saudi Arabia.

Methodological Limitations. The data was purely interview and self-reported data. Employing observational or longitudinal methodologies may offer further insight into the dynamics of interactions in ecosystems. Theoretical Clarification The term “ecological” here is applied solely to denote Ecological Systems Theory and not ecological consciousness or environmental sustainability in the conservation sense.