Fig. 1

(a) Dependencies considered between different infrastructure networks. The direction of the arrows shows the flow of services from one system to another. (b) The topology of the multi-layered infrastructure graph comprises power, water, healthcare, and population networks. (c) Method for establishing connectivity between the node assets of different dependent networks. The connectivity is evaluated based on the shortest path calculated on a transmission network. All maps were developed in QGIS 3.22.3 (https://www.qgis.org)58 and MATLAB R2022b (https://www.mathworks.com)59.