Introduction

The global push for climate change mitigation demands strong laws and policies to meet international climate goals and advance the shift away from fossil fuels. Rising CO₂ levels, driven by industrial activities, highlight the urgency of adopting sustainable energy solutions, with hydrogen emerging as a critical alternative. Hydrogen’s versatility as a feedstock, fuel, and energy carrier positions it as a central component in decarbonization efforts. Currently, fossil fuels are the main source of hydrogen, yet cleaner production methods, such as electrolyzer-based hydrogen from renewables, are rapidly developing. The International Energy Agency (IEA) anticipates that the planned electrolyzer capacity for 2030 will exceed demand by 50%, underlining the momentum for green hydrogen1.

Green hydrogen represents a cornerstone in the transition to a carbon-neutral energy landscape. It is produced through water electrolysis powered by renewable energy sources like solar and wind, making it a clean and sustainable energy solution. Its high energy storage efficiency enables applications in power generation, transportation, and industrial operations. This reduces reliance on fossil fuels and significantly cuts carbon emissions.

Technological advancements are driving reductions in production costs and improving the efficiency of electrolysis methods, reinforcing green hydrogen’s feasibility as a primary energy source. Globally, nations are competing to establish integrated infrastructures for green hydrogen. Countries like Germany, Japan, and Australia are leading with large-scale investments and innovative technologies aimed at enhancing efficiency and sustainability. This global momentum reflects a collective commitment to sustainable development and a transition to a low-carbon economy, underscoring green hydrogen’s crucial role in the future energy landscape.

Algeria, with its abundant natural resources and remarkable solar energy potential, is well-positioned to emerge as a key player in green hydrogen production. The country’s diverse geography and climate spanning sun-drenched desert areas and a temperate northern coastline offer a strong foundation for large-scale renewable energy endeavors. However, achieving this potential necessitates addressing critical factors such as the availability of solar energy, effective water resource management, and the logistical complexities of energy storage and transportation.

This study introduces a novel perspective by challenging the prevailing assumption that the Algerian desert is the optimal location for green hydrogen production. While previous studies have focused primarily on high solar radiation in the south, they have largely overlooked critical factors such as sustainable water sourcing and transportation challenges. Our research highlights the untapped potential of northern Algeria, which not only benefits from substantial solar energy potential but also offers sustainable water resources such as seawater and wastewater. Furthermore, the proximity of northern regions to the European market provides a strategic advantage for efficient hydrogen export via existing gas pipelines. This study contributes significantly to the development of a holistic and sustainable green hydrogen production strategy that balances energy potential with environmental and logistical considerations.

The Table 1 summarizes recent studies related to green hydrogen from around the world:

Table 1 Summary of Global studies on Green Hydrogen Production and challenges.
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Following an extensive review of studies on green hydrogen, we opted to undertake a detailed investigation of this topic in Algeria. This decision stems from Algeria’s recognition of hydrogen as a crucial solution to its pressing energy challenges and its commitment to transitioning toward a hydrogen-based economy. Notably, during the First International Workshop on Hydrogen: Renewable Energy Vector, held in Algiers in June 2005, key recommendations were proposed to advance this transition. These included prioritizing research, demonstration projects, education, and public outreach. Among the workshop’s outcomes were the establishment of the Algerian Hydrogen Association (2AH2) and the proposal for a collaborative Maghreb-Europe initiative. One prominent project, the Mediterranean Hydrogen Solar (MedHySol) project, focuses on developing large-scale solar hydrogen production intended for export. The project’s initial phase involves establishing a technological platform to evaluate emerging solar hydrogen production technologies, supporting breakthrough energy solutions. Subsequently, the project plans to implement cost-effective technologies for pilot projects ranging from 1 to 1000 MW13. Figure 1 illustrates the current distribution of Algeria’s renewable energy sources, showing solar PV as the dominant contributor at 61.7%, followed by wind at 22.7%. Biomass, solar thermal, cogeneration, and geothermal represent smaller portions.

Aligned with these efforts, Algeria has launched the HydrogeneSolareMethane (HySolThane) project under MedHySol, targeting the transportation sector. This project aims to develop Hydrogen-enriched Compressed Natural Gas (HCNG) as a fuel, starting with its implementation in buses operating in Algiers, with future plans to extend the initiative to other major cities. The overarching goal is to strategize the integration of hydrogen into Algeria’s energy economy, leveraging technologies like H2-Internal Combustion Engines in the short and medium terms. These initiatives highlight Algeria’s dedication to harnessing hydrogen as a sustainable energy alternative, aiming to establish itself as a key player in the regional energy transition14.

Fig. 1
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Objectives of the updated renewable energy program in Algeria by 2035.

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This study seeks to assess the feasibility and potential of green hydrogen production in different regions of Algeria, utilizing the country’s plentiful solar energy resources. By employing advanced simulation tools such as HOMER Pro, the analysis compares photovoltaic (PV) electricity productivity and green hydrogen yields in different locations, with a focus on both desert and non-desert areas. The key contributions of this study can be outlined as follows:

  • A comprehensive analysis demonstrating that green hydrogen production is not only more sustainable in northern Algeria but also better aligned with challenges related to water and transportation.

  • Highlighting the untapped potential of solar energy in northern regions, which offer high solar irradiation levels alongside sustainable water sources such as seawater and wastewater.

  • Proposing innovative solutions for utilizing seawater and wastewater in hydrogen production, contributing to the preservation of underground water resources.

  • Reviewing the economic and environmental benefits of reducing transportation and storage costs by producing hydrogen near gas pipelines and existing infrastructure.

  • Presenting an integrated approach that addresses the environmental and economic challenges of green hydrogen production, supporting Algeria in becoming a global leader in this field.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: “Research conducted in Algeria” Section provides an overview of previous studies and existing research on green hydrogen production in Algeria, emphasizing key accomplishments and identifying research gaps. “Water resources and potential” Section discusses Algeria’s water resources and sustainable management strategies for hydrogen production. “Solar resource” Section provides an overview of Algeria’s solar energy potential, focusing on solar irradiation distribution. “Solar electricity production in Algeria: an analysis” Section analyses solar electricity production capabilities across various regions, showcasing the country’s renewable energy potential. “Employed methodology” Section outlines the methodology, detailing the use of tools like HOMER Pro for evaluating energy system configurations and regional assessments. “Results and discussions” Section presents the results and discussion, offering a comparative analysis of photovoltaic productivity, hydrogen output, and economic and environmental impacts. Finally, “Conclusion” Section concludes with key findings, emphasizing Algeria’s strategic advantages and proposing future research directions.

Research conducted in Algeria

Since this field is relatively new, few studies in Algeria comprehensively address these topics. A. Mraoui and S. Menia15 assessed the potential for hydrogen production through photovoltaic energy, employing detailed hourly simulations and validated models. Their findings reveal hydrogen potentials in Algeria ranging between 0.10 Nm³/m²/year and 0.14 Nm³/m²/year, particularly significant in the arid southeast and the lowlands in the northeast, although these remain largely theoretical. The northwest region, with higher population density, shows potential reaching 0.13 Nm³/m²/day. For standalone systems, the hydrogen production potential ranges from 0.07 Nm³/m²/day to 0.13 Nm³/m²/day, highlighting the need for targeted studies that compare potential resource maps with geographical, social, economic, and infrastructure data during the final selection process. DJilali Masoudi et al.16,17 developed a methodology to identify optimal locations for hydrogen fueling stations powered by wind energy in Adrar province. Using an integrated AHP method with GIS and applying filtering constraints, they found almost all lands in Adrar promising for wind hydrogen production. Out of 15 stations, 4 were chosen for upgrading, with 3 in high suitability zones and 1 In a moderately suitable zone, it has been observed that most fuel stations are situated in areas unsuitable for wind turbine installations. Gougui et al.18 examined hydrogen production through a photovoltaic-electrolyzer system in the Ouargla region. Similarly, Mouloud Baik19 explored a hybrid power generation station in the Gant area, integrating solar and wind energy to investigate renewable sources for hydrogen generation. Khelfaoui et al.20 conducted an experimental analysis of PV/PEM systems for solar hydrogen production in the desert regions of Algeria. In another study, Lemya Bentoumi21 assessed the feasibility of hydrogen production by utilizing a CSP plant integrated with SRC and ORC cycles in the Illizi and Tindouf desert areas. The analysis, which incorporated AE, PEME, and SOE electrolyzers, highlighted Illizi as the most favorable location, with a power output exceeding 60 kW and an energy efficiency of 24.9% recorded in September. The production rates of hydrogen were highest using SOE electrolyzers (219 Nm³), followed by PEME (185 Nm³), and AE (148 Nm³). Additionally, Samia Rahmouni et al.22 estimated Algeria’s hydrogen production potential through water electrolysis powered by solar and wind energy. Their findings indicated significant wind energy potential in Laghouat (Hassi R’Mel area) and Adrar, with energy outputs of 1074.88 and 915.09 GWh/km²/year, respectively, leading to hydrogen production estimates of 18,447.6 and 15,705.3 tons/km²/year. For solar energy, the highest potentials were observed in Tamanrasset and El Tarf, with corresponding hydrogen production capacities of 6,327.19 and 4,437.14 tons/km²/year. These studies collectively demonstrate that renewable energy systems achieve greater efficiency in Algeria’s desert regions.

Upon thorough examination of these studies, it becomes evident that they predominantly focus on one critical aspect of green hydrogen production: the energy source. Each study unanimously concluded that the desert regions of Algeria are ideal for establishing green hydrogen production plants due to their high efficiency in harnessing photovoltaic and wind renewable energy. However, an equally important aspect has been largely overlooked: the water source required for the hydrogen production process.

Neither A. Mraoui15 nor DJilali Masoudi16,17 addressed the water source issue in their research. Although the renewable energy yield in these desert areas is promising, it alone is insufficient for comprehensive green hydrogen production. The pressing question remains: where will we source the necessary water in these arid regions? Samia Rahmouni22 proposed using groundwater, but this solution poses significant risks to Algeria’s non-renewable water resources. Furthermore, the studies did not consider the potential impact of high temperatures on hydrogen, nor did they address the challenges related to its storage and transportation.

The proposed study aims to conduct a deep analytical study of all the challenges associated with green hydrogen production. This involves not only identifying sites with high renewable energy potential but also guaranteeing access to a reliable and sustainable water supply. The main objective is to avoid depleting vital underground water resources, such as groundwater, and to explore innovative methods to leverage hydrogen production for secondary goals. This holistic approach will contribute to sustainable development and position Algeria as a leading nation in green hydrogen production.

Water resources and potential

Algeria boasts extensive hydraulic groundwater reserves alongside significant renewable energy potential as shown in Fig. 217, positioning it to pursue large-scale renewable hydrogen production through partnerships with international collaborators13. Spanning a landmass of 2.4 million km², Algeria is the largest nation in North Africa. Despite 87% of its territory being arid desert with limited rainfall, it holds substantial fossil groundwater resources. In contrast, the northern region benefits from a Mediterranean climate, which sustains both surface and renewable underground water sources.

The Tell region, encompassing approximately 7% of Algeria’s total area, accounts for 90% of its surface water reserves. Conversely, the southern Sahara primarily depends on fossil groundwater with minimal natural recharge. Algeria has identified six principal aquifers, with the majority of water resources concentrated in two major confined systems: the Terminal Complex (CT) and the Continental Interlayer (CI). These systems are jointly managed with neighboring Libya and Tunisia, forming the transboundary Septentrional Saharan Aquifer System (SSAS).

Annual rainfall in Algeria is estimated at 100 billion m³, with approximately 80% lost to atmospheric evaporation. The country’s total water resources are evaluated at 19.1 billion m³ annually, including 12.4 billion m³ from surface sources and 6.7 billion m³ from underground reserves. However, only 6 billion m³ are effectively harnessed through dam reservoirs, with current utilization at roughly 4 billion m³ across 110 operational dams. In the Sahara, groundwater reserves are estimated at 5.1 billion m³, with 1.6 billion m³ already exploited at an 80% capacity, mainly through wells and boreholes23,24.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Water resources in Algeria.

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Solar resource

Algeria ranks among the top countries globally in terms of solar irradiation, making it exceptionally suited for solar energy development. Annual solar irradiation averages range from 1,700 kWh/m² in the northern regions to over 2,200 kWh/m² in the southern desert areas. With around 3,000 h of sunshine annually, Algeria possesses a vast and untapped solar energy potential, positioning it as a leading candidate for large-scale solar energy projects. Leveraging this resource could play a critical role in advancing the country’s renewable energy targets, decreasing reliance on fossil fuels, and enabling green hydrogen production, thus driving Algeria’s energy transition forward. Figure 3 illustrates the spatial distribution of annual average global horizontal solar irradiation across Algeria’s regions25.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Annual Average Global Horizontal Solar Irradiation in Algeria.

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Solar electricity production in Algeria: an analysis

Algeria holds remarkable potential for solar electricity generation, utilizing mono-crystalline photovoltaic panels with a peak power rating of 250 W and an efficiency of 15.28%. Analysis of the spatial distribution of solar power across the country indicates a substantial production capacity, ranging from 250 to 370 GWh/km² annually. The Tamenrasset region emerges as the top performer, with an annual solar electricity potential of 368.7 GWh/km², followed by the Adrar region at 328.9 GWh/km². Bechar, situated in the extreme west, ranks third with an average annual output of 321.1 GWh/km². Figure 4 illustrates the projected solar electricity production across various regions, highlighting geographical and climatic influences on generation capacity.

These findings emphasize Algeria’s exceptional solar energy potential, particularly in the southern regions. This makes large-scale hydrogen production powered by solar energy a compelling opportunity, underscoring Algeria’s strategic position to drive renewable energy advancements25.

Fig. 4
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Solar electricity production.

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Employed methodology

The study begins with the proposal for establishing a 20-megawatt solar power station in the Ain Salah region of Algeria, which is already operational and providing energy to approximately 100 households. This solar station generates around 1,400 kilowatt-hours of electricity per day, ensuring a reliable supply of clean energy to the local community. Surplus energy generated during peak solar hours is directed to an electrolyzer for the production of green hydrogen. The hydrogen is then stored in pressurized tanks, allowing it to serve as a backup energy source during periods of low solar availability. This dynamic approach ensures continuous energy supply and minimizes reliance on non-renewable energy sources.

The system employs a real-time energy management strategy to optimize resource allocation. During periods of high solar energy generation, priority is given to meeting local energy demand. Any surplus energy is then routed to the electrolyzer for hydrogen production. The HOMER software was utilized to simulate and optimize the system’s operation, ensuring efficient integration of solar energy, hydrogen production, and storage components. This methodology supports the development of a sustainable and reliable energy system for Algeria’s unique climate conditions.

The analysis employed a generic electrolyzer model as provided by HOMER Pro software. This model represents a flexible approach that is not tied to a specific electrolyzer type, allowing for the evaluation of hydrogen production under various operating conditions. While the exact type of electrolyzer was not specified, the model assumes typical performance parameters that align with commercial electrolyzers, such as efficiencies ranging between 65% and 70%. This approach ensures that the findings are broadly applicable to commonly used technologies, including Alkaline (AEL) and Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolyzers.

Primary energy system configuration

To ensure uninterrupted energy supply, a fuel cell system has been employed, utilizing stored hydrogen to produce electricity during periods of insufficient sunlight, such as night-time or overcast conditions. This strategy effectively mitigates the intermittent nature of solar energy, providing a consistent and reliable power output. Figure 5 depicts the configuration of the energy system, which integrates photovoltaic panels, an electrolyzer, and a fuel cell.

The detailed specifications and components of the system are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2 System specifications.
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Fig. 5
figure 5

Diagram of a PV-Electrolyzer-Fuel Cell Power System.

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Supplementary energy solutions

As additional solutions, we suggest implementing advanced battery systems to store excess energy generated during peak sunlight hours, which can then be used to offset energy shortages during periods of low sunlight. This would enable us to preserve the produced hydrogen for other applications. Furthermore, we consider integrating a grid-connected system, which can provide an additional source of energy during extended periods of insufficient sunlight, ensuring that energy demands are consistently met without over-reliance on any single method.

Geographic and climatic application

The proposed solar power and hydrogen production system is not limited to a single location. We extend the application of this system across multiple regions in Algeria, each exhibiting unique climatic characteristics. The selected regions include Tamanrasset, Bechar, Adrar, Skikda, M’Sila, and Tlemcen. These locations were carefully chosen to provide a comprehensive comparison between desert and northern regions, allowing for an in-depth assessment of their respective potential for green hydrogen production.

Furthermore, a comparative analysis was conducted with international benchmarks such as Germany, Australia, and Mauritania to contextualize Algeria’s potential in the global hydrogen market. Germany and Australia were selected for their leadership in green hydrogen initiatives, while Mauritania presents a climate and solar resource profile similar to Algeria. This comparison underscores Algeria’s competitive edge in solar energy productivity and highlights the feasibility of northern regions in achieving sustainable hydrogen production.

By analyzing these diverse locations, we aim to assess the adaptability and efficiency of the proposed systems under varying environmental conditions, ultimately providing insights into the most sustainable and economically viable regions for green hydrogen production in Algeria.

Comparative benchmarking with leading countries

A comparative analysis is conducted with leading countries in the green hydrogen sector, known for their significant solar energy potential. Countries such as Mauritania, Germany, and Australia serve as benchmarks in our study. These nations have made substantial advancements in the field of green hydrogen and solar energy, providing valuable insights and best practices that can be adapted and implemented in the Algerian context.

Data acquisition and analysis

Regarding solar energy resources, our study leveraged NASA’s predictions and data to obtain critical insights into global solar energy potential. Utilizing NASA’s advanced satellite technology, which monitors solar radiation, we accessed comprehensive data on solar energy availability across various regions. This information was pivotal in identifying optimal locations for solar energy installations and evaluating the feasibility of large-scale solar power projects26. Our study, informed by NASA’s data, aims to propose effective solar energy solutions tailored to various climatic conditions, contributing to global efforts in sustainable energy development.

The results obtained from these analyses are meticulously processed and discussed. We delve into the performance metrics, economic feasibility, and environmental impact of the proposed systems. The discussion includes an evaluation of the scalability of the systems, potential challenges in implementation, and the overall benefits of integrating solar energy with hydrogen production. In doing so, we seek to offer a thorough understanding of the viability and sustainability of these renewable energy solutions, both in Algeria and globally.

Sensitivity analysis using HOMER pro

A comprehensive sensitivity analysis was conducted using HOMER Pro software to assess the robustness of the proposed green hydrogen production system. The analysis focused on the following key parameters:

  1. A.

    Electrolyzer Efficiency:

Efficiencies ranging from 60 to 80% were tested to reflect varying performance levels of commercial electrolyzers. Higher efficiencies led to significant improvements in hydrogen production rates, while lower efficiencies highlighted the importance of optimizing electrolyzer technology.

  1. B.

    Solar Electricity Costs:

The analysis considered variations in solar electricity costs between $0.03/kWh and $0.06/kWh. These scenarios demonstrated that lower electricity costs greatly enhance the economic feasibility of hydrogen production, positioning Algeria as a competitive producer in global markets.

  1. C.

    Water Availability:

Scenarios with restricted freshwater access were analyzed to evaluate the integration of seawater and wastewater treatment. Results showed that incorporating these alternative water sources sustains hydrogen production while promoting environmental sustainability.

The HOMER Pro simulation results indicate that the proposed system maintains strong performance across a wide range of scenarios, demonstrating its adaptability and reliability under diverse operating conditions.

Results and discussions

After inputting all relevant data into HOMER Pro software and generating the necessary results for each studied region, we meticulously summarized and compiled these findings. This comprehensive aggregation ensures that the comparative analysis is both clear and highly effective. Organizing the data in this way enables a deeper understanding of the differences and similarities across various areas, thereby improving the overall effectiveness of our comparison. This approach not only highlights key insights but also supports more informed decision-making regarding energy solutions and their applicability in diverse geographical contexts.

Photovoltaic electricity production

The analysis of the results, as illustrated in the accompanying Fig. 6, indicates that desert regions, notably Tamanrasset (33.5 GWh/year) and Adrar (32.9 GWh/year), exhibit the highest photovoltaic electricity productivity. This exceptional performance is primarily due to their extensive year-round solar irradiation. Nevertheless, the potential of other regions should not be underestimated. For example, Skikda, despite having less favorable solar conditions compared to desert regions, still demonstrates significant photovoltaic electricity productivity, achieving 26.6 GWh/year. When compared to international benchmarks such as Germany (17.8 GWh/year), Australia (18.8 GWh/year), and Mauritania (28.8 GWh/year), Skikda’s performance is particularly impressive. Furthermore, Tlemcen in north-eastern Algeria has produced 29 GWh/year. These findings underscore the broader viability and potential of photovoltaic systems across diverse geographic locations, highlighting the importance of harnessing solar energy beyond traditionally favorable regions.

Fig. 6
figure 6

Comparative Photovoltaic Electricity Production in Various Locations Worldwide.

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Green hydrogen production

Green hydrogen production based on photovoltaic energy shows significant potential across various regions in Algeria as shown in Figs. 7 and 8. The desert regions of Tamanrasset and Adrar achieve the highest production rates, with annual outputs of 679 tons and 668 tons, respectively, due to their high solar irradiation levels. However, the northern regions, particularly Tlemcen and Skikda, also demonstrate impressive production capacities, reaching 589 tons and 539 tons per year, respectively.

Fig. 7
figure 7

Comparative Hydrogen Production in Various Locations Worldwide.

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Notably, Skikda, the least productive among the studied Algerian regions, still achieves an annual production of 539 tons, a figure that not only surpasses the hydrogen output of leading global producers such as Germany (361 tons) and Australia (382 tons), but also closely rivals Mauritania’s production of 571 tons per year. This comparison underscores the strong potential of Algeria’s northern regions, which, despite having lower solar irradiation levels compared to the southern deserts, can still compete with and, in some cases, outperform well-established hydrogen producers on the international stage as demonstrated in Fig. 9.

These results highlight the robust capabilities of Algeria’s diverse regions in harnessing solar energy for hydrogen production. They emphasize the importance of considering northern Algeria as a viable production hub, offering competitive advantages in the global hydrogen market.

Fig. 8
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Comparative Hydrogen Production in various geographic locations in Algeria.

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Fig. 9
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Comparative Hydrogen Production in Various Locations Worldwide.

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Water resources

Solar energy availability across Algeria

Regarding the first element, which is the energy source, our analysis has determined that all regions of Algeria benefit from substantial levels of solar energy, not just the desert areas. The abundant availability of solar energy presents a valuable opportunity for renewable energy projects throughout the country. However, a critical aspect that is often overlooked in such studies is the water source required for green hydrogen production.

Challenges of using groundwater in desert regions

While desert regions exhibit high efficiency in solar energy yield due to extensive sunlight, the production of green hydrogen in these areas would primarily rely on groundwater. Groundwater is a crucial resource in desert regions, often being the only available source of water. However, the use of groundwater for green hydrogen production is problematic for several reasons.

  • Firstly, groundwater in desert regions is often non-renewable, meaning it replenishes at an extremely slow rate compared to the rate at which it is extracted. This makes reliance on groundwater for industrial processes like green hydrogen production unsustainable in the long term. Over-extraction of groundwater can lead to significant depletion of these aquifers, which can take centuries to naturally replenish. This poses a severe threat to the availability of water for other critical uses, such as drinking water for local populations and irrigation for agriculture.

  • Secondly, groundwater depletion can have serious ecological and environmental impacts. Lowering the water table can lead to land subsidence, which can damage infrastructure and reduce the land’s ability to support vegetation. This can exacerbate desertification, leading to the loss of arable land and biodiversity. Additionally, groundwater extraction often brings up saline or contaminated water, which can further degrade the quality of the remaining water resources.

  • Additionally, the energy-intensive processes involved in desalinating saline groundwater or treating contaminated groundwater increase the overall energy demand and cost of green hydrogen production. This, in turn, reduces the environmental advantages of producing green hydrogen in these regions, as the energy needed for water treatment could offset the benefits derived from utilizing renewable solar energy27.

To effectively mitigate these risks, it is crucial to identify and utilize regions with alternative and more sustainable water sources for green hydrogen production. Northern regions of Algeria, for instance, offer significant advantages due to their more consistent and renewable water sources. These include seawater, wastewater from major cities, and higher rainfall. Such regions can support the water-intensive hydrogen production process without the adverse effects associated with groundwater depletion.

Moreover, the hydrogen production process in these areas can be integrated with secondary operations such as wastewater treatment and salt extraction from seawater. This not only optimizes resource use but also adds value through the creation of by-products and the improvement of water management practices.

Focusing on regions with renewable water resources ensures that green hydrogen production remains truly sustainable. This approach aligns with broader goals of environmental stewardship and resource conservation, fostering a balanced integration of renewable energy use while preserving vital natural resources. By adopting this strategy, we can address multiple challenges within the green hydrogen production sector, ensuring its long-term viability and positive environmental impact.

The matter does not stop here, by selecting these areas, we can address several challenges in the green hydrogen sector, including issues related to storage and transportation.

Utilizing seawater for green hydrogen and sea salt extraction

In Algeria, harnessing seawater for green hydrogen production, alongside sea salt extraction, offers a major opportunity for sustainable development. By establishing green hydrogen production facilities in the northern coastal regions, Algeria can capitalize on its abundant marine resources to advance environmentally friendly energy initiatives. The electrolysis of seawater not only produces green hydrogen but also facilitates the extraction of valuable sea salt as a by-product. Studies such as He et al.5 have demonstrated the economic and environmental feasibility of using seawater electrolysis, highlighting its potential to reduce costs and CO₂ emissions while producing valuable by-products. This dual approach maximizes resource efficiency and promotes economic diversification. Such innovative integration of green hydrogen production with salt extraction supports Algeria’s commitment to sustainable energy solutions and resource management, while also contributing to the local economy and reducing environmental impact.

Utilizing wastewater for green hydrogen production

Additionally, the utilization of wastewater, which exceeds 1.5 billion cubic meters annually, offers another transformative opportunity for sustainable green hydrogen production in Algeria (Figs. 10 and 11). By establishing production stations near major cities in the northern regions, Algeria can efficiently harness treated wastewater as a vital resource for electrolysis. This approach alleviates the environmental impact associated with the depletion of non-renewable groundwater and promotes the beneficial reuse of wastewater. Studies such as Ahmed M. Elgarahy et al. have emphasized the potential of wastewater as a sustainable source for hydrogen production using electrochemical techniques12. Their findings highlight the economic and environmental advantages of electrolysis as an efficient method for converting treated wastewater into green hydrogen. By leveraging this approach, Algeria can enhance resource optimization while simultaneously addressing urban water management challenges.

Integrating wastewater treatment with hydrogen production enhances resource efficiency and supports comprehensive water management strategies. Together, these initiatives underscore Algeria’s commitment to pioneering eco-friendly energy solutions while addressing urban water resource challenges, aligning with broader environmental sustainability goals.

In Algeria, water resource management is a critical issue due to the scarcity of these resources and the associated environmental challenges. Dams play a significant role in providing surface water, with approximately 80 dams currently in operation and plans to increase this number to 139 by 2030. These dams are used to meet drinking water and irrigation needs in elevated regions. Additionally, Algeria has a growing network of wastewater treatment plants. Currently, there are around 100 treatment plants with a total capacity of 1.8 billion cubic meters annually. These plants process approximately 600 million cubic meters of wastewater each year, with this volume expected to increase as new systems come online.

Treated wastewater is a potential source for green hydrogen production, particularly in areas surrounding dams where large quantities of water are available. This water can be utilized in electrolysis processes to produce hydrogen, contributing to sustainability goals and reducing reliance on freshwater resources. By integrating the use of treated wastewater into green hydrogen production, Algeria can enhance its strategies for renewable energy and water resource management while leveraging the existing infrastructure of dams and treatment plants.

Fig. 10
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A comparison of the characteristic volumes of WWTPs managed by the NSO in 200928.

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Fig. 11
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The progression of wastewater production within watersheds that are equipped with dams28.

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Strategic advancements in hydrogen utilization and exportation

Hydrogen is a versatile resource utilized in various fields, including energy, industry, transportation, and beyond. The demand for hydrogen is exceptionally high, with global supply struggling to meet this demand. Given that Algeria currently does not use hydrogen in any of its sectors, the most advantageous strategy for the country is to sell its produced hydrogen on international and European markets. This approach is particularly timely, in response to the growing global demand for green hydrogen, with prices reaching up to $5.6 per kilogram in the European Union. By tapping into this market, Algeria can significantly benefit economically.

Fig. 12
figure 12

Comparative Levelized Cost of Hydrogen in Various Locations Worldwide.

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The economic analysis of hydrogen production costs (LCOH) further supports Algeria’s potential as a competitive player in the green hydrogen market. The results in Fig. 12 show that the southern regions, such as Tamanrasset and Adrar, achieve the lowest production costs at $1.68/kg and $1.70/kg, respectively, owing to their high solar irradiation levels. However, the northern regions, particularly Tlemcen and Skikda, also demonstrate competitive costs of $1.92/kg and $2.11/kg, respectively. These values are significantly lower than those observed in global leaders such as Australia ($2.94/kg) and Germany ($3.11/kg). This positions Algeria’s northern regions as economically viable hubs for hydrogen production and export, benefiting from their proximity to sustainable water resources and export infrastructure.

Tackling the challenges of storage and transportation

One of the major challenges in the hydrogen industry lies in the storage and transportation of green hydrogen. These obstacles are particularly pressing due to hydrogen’s low density and the high costs associated with its storage and movement. By establishing hydrogen production stations in northern regions of Algeria, we can strategically address these issues. Locating production facilities near ports simplifies the export process and substantially reduces the costs and logistical complexities associated with transporting hydrogen from the southern desert regions. Additionally, it mitigates the safety risks posed by high temperatures in desert areas, which can be a significant concern in hydrogen storage and transport.

Recent developments in Algeria further emphasize the country’s commitment to becoming a key player in the global green hydrogen economy. One notable initiative is the ‘Corridor Sud H2’ project, which aims to transport approximately 4 million tons of green hydrogen annually to Italy and other European markets. This project, developed in collaboration with Italy, Germany, Austria, and Tunisia, includes the construction of over 3,300 km of hydrogen transport infrastructure. By leveraging existing natural gas pipelines and Algeria’s geographical proximity to Europe, the initiative underscores the country’s strategic advantage in hydrogen exportation. The findings of this study align closely with the goals of this project, particularly by identifying northern Algeria as a prime region for hydrogen production and its integration with export logistics. Together, these efforts highlight Algeria’s potential to bridge Africa and Europe in the energy transition.

Leveraging existing infrastructure for efficient export

Furthermore, situating green hydrogen production stations near Algeria’s natural gas export pipelines offers a practical solution to the storage and transportation challenges. Pipelines such as the Galsi pipeline to Italy in Skikda and the gas pipeline to Almeria in Oran are already equipped and capable of transporting green hydrogen. By injecting hydrogen into these existing pipelines and blending it with natural gas, Algeria can efficiently export hydrogen to international markets. This approach addresses storage and transportation challenges while capitalizing on Algeria’s existing infrastructure, thereby improving the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of hydrogen export. By strategically utilizing its geographical location and established infrastructure, Algeria can tackle key obstacles in the hydrogen sector, positioning itself as a prominent player in the rapidly growing global green hydrogen market.

Utilizing hydrogen for power generation in micro-grids

An intriguing avenue for future research focuses on utilizing hydrogen to generate electricity during periods without sunlight, employing fuel cells as an alternative to conventional batteries in microgrids. This innovative approach seeks to establish a self-sufficient and environmentally sustainable energy system with zero emissions. Fuel cells, which produce electricity from hydrogen through an electrochemical process, offer distinct advantages over batteries, such as higher energy efficiency, longer lifespan, and faster refuelling. Integrating hydrogen fuel cells into microgrid configurations ensures a reliable and uninterrupted power supply, even in the absence of solar energy. This integration not only enhances the resilience and sustainability of microgrids but also decreases dependency on fossil fuels, contributing to lower greenhouse gas emissions. Adopting this technology could accelerate the transition to clean energy systems, bolstering global efforts to mitigate climate change and promote sustainable development.

Expanding solar power plants for green hydrogen production

Building on existing advancements, Algeria’s solar power plants offer a promising platform for further innovation. These facilities can be optimized to harness surplus energy produced during peak sunlight hours for green hydrogen production. Through the application of electrolysis technology, excess solar power can be transformed into hydrogen gas, which can then be stored and utilized as a clean fuel or industrial feedstock. This approach not only improves the efficiency of solar power plants but also diversifies Algeria’s energy mix. Integrating green hydrogen production (Fig. 13) with solar energy systems aligns with the nation’s objectives of reducing carbon emissions, advancing renewable energy adoption, and establishing itself as a key player in the global shift toward sustainable energy. Furthermore, this strategy addresses one of the main challenges of renewable energy—storage—by offering a practical and scalable solution, ensuring a steady and reliable supply of clean energy29.

Fig. 13
figure 13

Hydrogen Production and Consumption by Region (Kg/year).

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Comparative analysis: Algeria’s unique position in green hydrogen production

Several countries, including Germany, Australia, and Saudi Arabia, have demonstrated advancements in green hydrogen production. However, Algeria offers a distinctive combination of geographical, resource-based, and economic factors that position it as a competitive player in this sector. Initially, Algeria benefits from consistent solar irradiation across both northern and southern regions, enabling high photovoltaic productivity throughout the year. This characteristic distinguishes it from countries such as Germany, where solar energy potential is relatively limited. Furthermore, Algeria’s proximity to European markets provides a significant logistical advantage for hydrogen export. The availability of existing natural gas pipelines, allows for their repurposing to transport hydrogen. This reduces both the costs and complexities associated with developing entirely new infrastructure. In addition, Algeria has access to alternative water resources, including seawater and treated wastewater, which reduces reliance on freshwater. This aspect differentiates it from countries like Australia, which often depend heavily on desalination for water supply.

Economic feasibility and long-term viability

While Algeria’s technical and logistical advantages are evident, the economic feasibility of its green hydrogen strategies further strengthens its position. Current estimates suggest that the cost of producing green hydrogen using photovoltaic energy in Algeria ranges between $4 and $6 per kilogram, owing to its low solar electricity cost of $0.04/kWh. These figures place Algeria among the most competitive producers globally.

Moreover, leveraging existing infrastructure, such as natural gas pipelines, reduces capital expenditure associated with hydrogen transport to European markets. However, long-term viability requires addressing initial capital costs for electrolyzer installation and water treatment facilities. Partnerships, such as the ‘Corridor Sud H2’ initiative, play a crucial role in attracting investments and fostering market demand, ensuring Algeria’s continued competitiveness in the global green hydrogen market.

Conclusion

Green hydrogen is at the forefront of the renewable energy revolution, driving the transition to a carbon-neutral future. This study emphasizes Algeria’s remarkable potential to capitalize on green hydrogen by utilizing its abundant solar energy and water resources. Through substantial investments and strategic projects like MedHySol and HySolThane, Algeria is well-positioned to become a global leader in green hydrogen production.

Research highlights the pivotal role of integrating renewable energy with hydrogen production to support sustainable development and bolster energy security. By effectively leveraging its vast solar energy potential and addressing water resource challenges, Algeria can establish a balanced and efficient green hydrogen production system. Moreover, incorporating hydrogen into microgrids via fuel cells represents a forward-thinking approach to ensuring uninterrupted power supply while significantly reducing emissions.

Algeria’s strategic geographic position and established infrastructure offer a distinct advantage in exporting green hydrogen to international markets, particularly Europe. This strengthens Algeria’s role as a key player in the global green hydrogen market and a significant contributor to worldwide efforts to combat climate change.

This study opens up other horizons for several future studies to expand in this field:

  • Studying the exploitation of seawater in green hydrogen production and salt extraction: These studies can enhance the integration between hydrogen production and the utilization of by-products such as sea salt.

  • Studying ways to use wastewater in green hydrogen production and water purification: This dual-use approach represents an opportunity to achieve environmental and economic benefits by effectively reusing available resources.

  • Evaluating existing stations in Algeria to exploit surplus energy to produce green hydrogen: This evaluation will help optimize resource utilization and maximize the benefits of existing infrastructure.

  • Advancing research on green hydrogen storage and transportation: Addressing the critical challenges of storage and transportation is essential for progress in this sector, making targeted research and innovation in these areas a cornerstone for success.

  • Developing electrolyzer technology to increase efficiency: Advanced electrolyzer technology is essential for increasing production efficiency and reducing costs.

In conclusion, this in-depth study highlights the necessity of adopting an integrated approach to green hydrogen production, encompassing renewable energy, water resource management, and innovative storage and transportation solutions. By continuing to develop and refine these systems, Algeria has the potential to advance its renewable energy objectives significantly, contributing to the global shift toward a sustainable and low-carbon future.