The human-water relationship is a pivotal aspect of human–environment interactions, with water serving as a nurturing force for civilizations across diverse regions1. River basins, in particular, have historically acted as the cradle of human civilization, fostering vibrant and enduring cultures that form the bedrock of sustained human development. The Yangtze River and Yellow Rivers, for instance, have significantly shaped the trajectory of Chinese civilizations. In addition to major rivers, small watersheds have also played crucial roles in cultivating splendid regional cultures. Traditional villages, as spatial repositories of exceptional Chinese traditional culture, encapsulate the essence of thousand-year-old agrarian civilizations and represent irreplaceable cultural heritage. These villages, which are the roots and custodians of rich historical and cultural legacies, are also valued as significant tourist resources that contribute to economic benefits2. However, in the face of rapid urbanization and industrialization in China over recent decades, traditional villages have experienced a precipitous decline3. This decline disrupts the continuity of regional historical and cultural heritage, underscoring the urgent need for preservation4. As key components of China’s rural revitalization strategy, the preservation of traditional villages is paramount and warrants greater attention5. It not only encompasses the inheritance and conservation of traditional culture but also promotes its innovation and transformation, thereby facilitating rural revitalization6. Despite the Chinese government’s efforts in listing six batches of traditional villages for heritage protection, there remains scope for improvement in legal regulations and theoretical research pertaining to their preservation7.

The Qihe River Basin, in particular, offers a unique lens through which to explore these issues. The Qihe River not only gave birth to a splendid ancient civilization but also fostered a profound cultural legacy. The Book of Songs, the first collection of poetry in China, contains 39 poems that depict the customs and scenery of the Qihe River Basin. In 2014, the Chinese Poetry Society bestowed upon it the honor of “China’s Poetry River,” making it the only river in the country with such a distinction. The river basin’s rich cultural heritage and historical significance provide substantial research value, particularly when exploring traditional village remnants from various eras—spanning from prehistoric times (circa 2000 BC) to the present (2024 AD). These remnants offer insights into political, economic, cultural, and military activities, among other fields, making traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin highly representative of our research.

Research on traditional villages spans multiple disciplines, including geography, ecology, sociology, and anthropology, demonstrating a distinctive interdisciplinary character. Existing studies have focused on topics such as spatial morphology8,9,10, spatial layout11,12,13, sustainable development14,15,16, landscape ecology17, heritage conservation18,19, and the suitability of traditional village habitats20. In China, researchers have emphasized spatiotemporal differentiation21,22, accessibility analysis23,24, and cultural tourism25,26. While these studies have contributed significantly to our understanding, they have often been confined to specific perspectives or regions. The spatial distribution characteristics and influencing factors of traditional villages in provincial administrative areas have been studied27. Furthermore, an evaluation index system was constructed to examine the hollowing characteristics and influencing factors of the fifth batch of traditional villages in China28. The spatio-temporal evolution of traditional villages in hilly terrains and their driving factors have been investigated29, while the evolution in the Wuling Mountains of Hunan Province, China, has been explored using multi-scale geographically weighted regression and other analytical methods30. As research on traditional villages has progressed, scholars have increasingly recognized the intricate interplay of various factors, including climate change31, land use32, policy33, urbanization, and population dynamics34, in shaping this evolution.

The roots of civilization are deeply intertwined with water, and watersheds, as autonomous geographical entities, provide a crucial lens through which the spatiotemporal evolution of human civilization and human–environment interactions can be explored. Research on traditional villages in watersheds has traditionally focused on major watersheds35,36,37, yielding a series of representative findings. However, the scope of the existing research is mostly confined to large rivers such as the Yangtze River and Yellow River, which tends to lead to limitations in the research results. Subbasins and catchment areas, as independent geographic units, are closely related to the activities of human settlements and provide an excellent perspective for studying the spatial and temporal evolution of civilisations, and for observing the relationships between humans and the earth. Moreover, most scholars have implemented a post-modern era timescale in their spatiotemporal evolution research38,39, leading to a relative dearth of studies on early textual material carriers and potentially neglecting the influence of historical river course alterations on the dispersion of traditional villages. Therefore, a methodical and exhaustive examination of the spatiotemporal patterns and determining factors of traditional villages in river basins is highly important. This study aims to fill these gaps by adopting a multi-scale, interdisciplinary approach that integrates historical data, GIS, and qualitative research methods. As a representative of small watersheds, the Qihe River Basin was honored by the China Poetry Association as ‘China Poetry’ in 2014. By studying the spatial and temporal evolution of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin and the factors influencing them, we hope to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the complex interactions between traditional villages and the environment of the subbasin to elucidate the historical and contemporary factors that have shaped their evolution, and to provide important reference value and scientific guidance for the study of traditional villages in other subbasins.

To address these gaps, our research adopts a comprehensive approach to examine the spatiotemporal patterns and determining factors of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin. By drawing on pivotal events throughout the river basin evolution, we segment its historical progression into six sequential epochs: the Han Dynasty’s development period (600 BCE-583 CE), the Tang Dynasty’s extinction period (583 CE-1064 CE), the Song Dynasty’s expansion period (1064 CE-1279 CE), the Yuan and Ming Dynasties’ heyday period (1279 CE-1644 CE), the Qing Dynasty’s saturation period (1644 CE-1912 CE), and the period of modern and contemporary history (1912 CE-present). This segmentation allows us to delve deeper into the following inquiries:

  1. 1.

    How does the quantity of traditional villages correlate with different historical periods, and what spatial distribution characteristics do these villages exhibit during the six historical periods?

  2. 2.

    How has the distribution of these villages evolved across these periods, and What factors have propelled the evolution of traditional village distributions in the Qihe River Basin?

  3. 3.

    Which traditional villages have ceased to exist, and what factors contributed to their disappearance?

By exploring these questions, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of traditional village cultural heritage in the Qihe River Basin. We aim to contribute to better inheritance and revitalization of traditional culture, protect the overall appearance of traditional villages and their historical and cultural heritages, and promote the sustainable development of these villages.

Materials and methods

Study area overview

The Qihe River Basin, situated at the eastern foothills of the southern Taihang Mountains in China, is adjacent to the North China Plain in the east. It encompasses the cities of Changzhi and Jincheng in Shanxi Province, as well as Anyang, Hebi, and Xinxiang in Henan Province, covering an area of approximately 2529 square kilometers and stretching over a length of 176 km. It is part of the Wei River, which is a tributary of the South Canal System of the Hai River Basin and has historically flowed into the Yellow River. However, during the Han Dynasty, owing to military conflicts, its course was redirected to the Wei River, a tributary of the Hai River Basin (Fig. 1). The Qihe River Basin originates from Xiaofandai on QiZi Mountain in Fangnaoling County, Shanxi Province, and flows through Huixian and Linzhou into Heping’s Panshishou Reservoir. As it runs southward along the border of Qibin District and Qixian County, and between Qixian and Xunxian counties, it converges at Qimen Village, Xinzhen Town, Xun County, where it joins the Wei River, together with major tributaries such as the Xi and Xiang Rivers. The Qihe River Basin, previously referred to as Qihe Water, accords with the “Chinese Poetry River” by the Chinese Poetry Society in 2014, distinguishing it as the sole river in China to receive such recognition. This basin has been a cradle of ancient civilizations, giving rise to the profound Qihe River Basin culture and nurturing a wealth of natural and cultural relics, thereby constituting a plethora of natural and cultural resources (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Geographical location and topographic features of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin. (a) Map of China. Note: The basic map of China is derived from the standard map service website (http://bzdt.ch.mnr.gov.cn) with approval number GS(2023) 2763 produced by the Ministry of Natural Resources of the People’s Republic of China, and the base map has not been modified. (b) Map of Henan and its vicinity. (c) Extent of the Qihe River Basin.

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Fig. 2
figure 2

Distribution map of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin. Note The map was generated by GIS 10.8 (https://www.gscloud.cn/).

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Traditional villages

As of May 2024, data released by the Ministry of Housing and Urban–Rural Development of China indicate that a total of 29 villages in the Qihe River Basin have been designated as national traditional villages. Specifically, in the Henan section, there are 9 villages in Hebi city, 7 villages in Anyang city, and 5 villages in Xinxiang city, totaling 21 villages (Fig. 2), representing 72% of the total. In the Shanxi section, there are 5 villages in Changzhi city and 3 villages in Jincheng city, totaling 8 villages, accounting for 28% of the total. The identification of traditional villages was based on declarations by the Ministries of Housing and Urban–Rural Development, Culture, and Finance, in conjunction with the “Qihe River Basin Chronicles” and historical records of each village, which were further validated and refined through field surveys. The research delved into the establishment and development history of each village, spanning the Han Dynasty (600 BCE—583 CE), the decline during the Tang Dynasty (583 CE—1064 CE), the expansion in the Song Dynasty (1064 CE—1279 CE), the flourishing periods during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties (1279 CE—1644 CE), saturation in the Qing Dynasty (1644 CE—1912 CE), and modern history (1912 CE—present)40.

Data sources

The study’s data are obtained from diverse sources, including websites, literature, historical records of traditional villages, local chronicles, historical documents, and field survey data. These include provincial and municipal administrative boundaries, satellite images, the Qihe River Basin’s extent, village construction periods, and land use data. Table 1 presents the spatial data employed in the study. ArcGIS 10.8 serves as the primary technical platform, utilized to extract river networks and delineate the extent of the Qihe River Basin, leveraging DEM data. The Baidu coordinate picking system is deployed to acquire latitude and longitude coordinates of traditional villages, facilitating the establishment of a geographic information database. This database enables the analysis and visualization of traditional villages’ spatial locations, formation periods, and typological traits. Provincial and municipal administrative boundary data are sourced from the Chinese Academy of Sciences Resource and Environmental Data Cloud Platform, while additional historical and cultural information is derived from local chronicles, official regional websites, and pertinent reference literature.

Table 1 Data source and uses.
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Research methods

This study follows the guiding ideology of innovation and practicality, and its research methodology ensures the comprehensiveness and accuracy of the study. First, we take traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin as the research object and use ArcGIS kernel density estimation and nearest neighbor index tools to carry out regional spatial character analysis. Spatial analysis methods such as standard deviation ellipse and geographic concentration index were applied to analyse the spatial and temporal evolution characteristics of traditional villages. Finally, buffer zone analysis was used to classify the watershed water system and focus on the watershed scale to identify the spatial distribution characteristics of the traditional villages in the region, and to discuss these specific characteristics in depth (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3
figure 3

Technology roadmap.

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The nearest neighbor index

The nearest neighbor index (NNI) is employed to assess the spatial distribution and proximity of point features, classifying their distribution pattern as clustered, dispersed, or random on the base of spatial arrangement. The NNI is expressed as follows41:

$$R = \frac{{\mathop {\overline{r} }\nolimits_{i} }}{{\mathop {\overline{r} }\nolimits_{E} }}$$
(1)

where ri denotes the actual nearest neighbor distance and rE represents the theoretical nearest neighbor distance. A value of R < 1 indicates a clustered distribution of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin, while R > 1 suggests a uniform distribution, and R = 1 implies a random distribution.

$$\mathop {\overline{r}}\nolimits_{E} = \frac{1}{2}\sqrt {{\raise0.7ex\hbox{$n$} \!\mathord{\left/ {\vphantom {n A}}\right.\kern-0pt} \!\lower0.7ex\hbox{$A$}}}$$
(2)

where A represents the area of the study area and n represents the number of traditional villages in the study area.

Kernel density analysis

The kernel function is used to estimate the density of point features in their respective local neighborhoods, effectively modeling each point as part of a smooth surface. This index provides a clear representation of the spatial distribution pattern of traditional villages in the river basin42. The formula for the kernel density estimation function is as follows:

$$f\left( x \right) = \frac{1}{nh}\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{n} {k\left( {\frac{x - xi}{h}} \right)}$$
(3)

where \(f\left( x \right)\) represents the kernel density estimate of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin; \(k\left( {\frac{{x - x_{i} }}{h}} \right)\) represents the kernel function; h represents the bandwidth; n represents the number of point features; \(x - xi\) represents the distance from the estimated point x to the sample xi; and k represents the spatial weighting function. Thus, a larger value indicates a denser distribution of traditional villages31.

Geographical concentration index

The geographic concentration index G is used to measure the degree of concentration of traditional villages in a region. It is calculated as:

$$G=100\cdot \sqrt{{\sum }_{i=1}^{n}{\left(\frac{{P}_{i}}{Q}\right)}^{2}}$$
(4)

where G represents the geographic concentration index; n represents the number of counties and districts in the Qihe River Basin; Pi represents the number of traditional villages in the i-th county or district; and Q represents the total number of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin. The value of G ranges from 0 to 100. A higher G value indicates a greater concentration of traditional villages in a specific area, while a lower value indicates a more uniform and dispersed distribution of traditional villages5.

Standard deviation ellipse

The standard deviation ellipse is a spatial statistical technique used for quantitative analysis of the spatial characteristics of geographical features. It provides information on spatial distribution directionality, centroid, and expansion direction deviation. The key parameters include the center, orientation angle, major and minor axes. The major axis signifies the direction of the spatial distribution, while the minor axis denotes the data distribution range. The aspect ratio, known as the flattening ratio, indicates the level of directionality in the data distribution. A higher flattening ratio suggests stronger directionality, while a lower ratio, approaching a circular shape, indicates weaker directionality and greater dispersion41. In this study, we utilize the standard deviation ellipse analysis method in the ArcGIS 10.8 platform to explore the evolution direction of the distribution centroid and dispersion trend in the spatial pattern of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin.

Buffer analysis

To delineate a buffer zone around input features at a specified distance, such as the river system represented as linear features, polygons of a designated width are generated outward to form the buffer zones. Subsequently, overlay analysis is performed between the point features representing traditional villages and the created river buffer zones to determine the number of traditional villages in various buffer radius ranges. This facilitates the examination of their distribution patterns36,43.

Results

Spatial distribution characteristics

Spatial distribution types

The average nearest neighbor tool in ArcGIS 10.8 software revealed an observed average distance of 3.75 km, whereas the expected average distance was 4.03 km, yielding an R value of 0.93 (less than 1). Standardized statistics yield a z-value of − 0.72 and a significance test p-value of 0.47, indicating a clustered spatial distribution of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin.

Spatial density distribution characteristics

The kernel density tool in ArcGIS 10.8 software was used to examine the spatial distribution characteristics of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin (Fig. 4), revealing a pattern of “large aggregation, small dispersion”, resulting in three distinct clusters. These clusters are located at the border of Changzhi city and Jincheng city in Shanxi Province, in Qi County, Hebi city, Henan Province, and in Qibin District, Hebi city, Henan Province. The cluster area at the border of Changzhi city and Jincheng city in Shanxi Province is closely associated with the primary tributaries of the Qihe River Basin, such as the Xi River, Majiang River, and Jiaogou River, where traditional villages are densely concentrated. The cluster area in Qi County, Hebi city, Henan Province, is located near the Zhaojiaqu tributary of the Qihe River Basin. The cluster area in Qibin District, Hebi city, Henan Province, features traditional villages distributed around the main thoroughfares of the Qihe River Basin. All three traditional village cluster areas are situated around the Qihe River Basin. Among the two provinces where traditional villages are located, Henan Province has the largest number. Notably, Hebi city and Anyang city in Henan Province harbor the most traditional villages, with 9 and 7 villages, respectively, accounting for 55% of the total, thus playing a significant role in the cultural and landscape preservation of the Qihe River Basin.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Kernel density analysis of the Qihe River Basin. Note: The map was generated by GIS 10.8 (https://www.gscloud.cn/).

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Changes to the center of gravity

By employing the Standard Deviation Ellipse and Mean Center tools in ArcGIS 10.8 software to analyse the shift in the center of gravity of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin (Fig. 5), the findings reveal a southwest-northeast-southeast trend in the movement of the center of gravity over the six periods, with a total displacement of 19.433 km (Table 2). During the transition from the Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, the center migrated 9.822 km along the Qihe River Basin, with both centers situated west of the basin, attributable to the shift in the Qihe River Basin’s course from draining into the Yellow River to redirecting into the Wei River during the Western Han Dynasty. During the first year of Yongxing, heavy rain in Chaoge resulted in a Qihe River Basin overflow, while in the ninth year of Jian’an, Cao Cao constructed a large weir near Xinzhencun Village in Juxian County, diverting the Qihe River Basin eastward into Baigou for military purposes and agricultural irrigation. The Qihe River Basin subsequently flows into the Wei River. From the Tang Dynasty to the Song Dynasty, the center shifted 3.579 km along the Qihe River Basin, representing a decrease of 6.243 km from the previous period. Following the alteration of the Qihe River Basin’s course, the development of traditional villages stabilized, with new villages predominantly emerging in the middle and upper reaches of the Qihe River Basin. The results indicate that traditional village centrality was more pronounced in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and concentrated around the center of gravity, while in the Qin, Han, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, the centrality was weaker, characterized by a southwest-west and southeast-east distribution pattern.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Standard deviation ellipse map of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin across historical periods. Note: The map was generated by GIS 10.8 (https://www.gscloud.cn/).

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Table 2 Location and movement of the center of gravity in six historical periods.
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Spatial and temporal evolution of traditional villages and the Qihe River Basin

By utilizing the kernel density tool to examine the spatiotemporal distribution patterns of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin across distinct periods (Fig. 6), the analysis reveals a clustering of traditional villages during all six periods. Specifically, traditional villages upstream predominantly occupy the northern bank, whereas those in the middle and lower reaches are located on the southern bank. This observation suggests that ancient traditional villages were primarily concentrated in the middle and lower mountainous regions of the upstream and middle and lower reaches of the Qihe River Basin, as inhabitants sought more ground to mitigate conflicts. Over time, traditional villages gradually transitioned to the plains of the middle and lower reaches of the Qihe River Basin, resulting in a proliferation of traditional villages in these areas. This trend aligns with the fundamental understanding of ancient Chinese migration from mountainous regions to plains44. During the Western Han Dynasty, in the first year of Yongxing, Cao Cao redirected the Qihe River Basin eastward into Baigou, altering its course from the Yellow River to the Wei River. Subsequently, extensive navigation development ensued, fostering enhanced economic progress. In the 14th year of the Kaiyuan period during the Sui and Tang Dynasties, heavy rain in Chaoge led to an overflow of the Qihe River Basin, resulting in an increase in the number of traditional villages but a decrease in their concentration. In the Song Dynasty, the Jin army engaged in deforestation and charcoal burning along the lower reaches of the Qihe River Basin, rendering these areas unsuitable for habitation. Consequently, the placement of traditional villages gradually shifted from the lower reaches to the middle and lower reaches. During the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, the construction of numerous temples and stone pagodas spurred rapid economic growth, leading to a substantial increase in traditional villages and a period of prosperity. During the Qing Dynasty, economic development stabilized, but breaches in the Yellow River and Qihe River caused significant water inflow into the Qihe River Basin. Consequently, traditional villages in both the upstream and downstream areas expanded, locating themselves in close proximity to the Qihe River Basin to ensure sufficient water supply45. From the Qing Dynasty to modern times, advancements in water conservancy engineering technology became increasingly sophisticated. The initiation of Panshitou Reservoir construction in the Qihe River Basin in 1998, coupled with heightened development efforts in mountainous areas, prompted the relocation of certain traditional villages46. Moreover, natural environmental erosion led to the gradual disappearance of traditional villages in the middle reaches of the plain areas of the Qihe River Basin, reflecting the influence of contemporary land use alterations and economic development on the preservation and evolution of traditional villages.

Fig. 6
figure 6

Temporal evolution map of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin. (a) Spatial and temporal distributions of traditional villages in the Han Dynasty. (b) Spatial and temporal distributions of traditional villages in the Tang Dynasty. (c) Spatial and temporal distributions of traditional villages in the Song Dynasty. (d) Spatial and temporal distributions of traditional villages in the Ming Dynasty. (e) Spatial and temporal distributions of traditional villages in the Qing Dynasty. (f) Spatial and temporal distributions of modern traditional villages. Note: The map was generated by GIS 10.8 (https://www.gscloud.cn/).

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Evolution of traditional village types over time

From the Qing Dynasty to modern times, the number of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin gradually declined (Table 3). The statistical data indicate the disappearance of seven traditional villages distributed across Anyang city, Hebi city, Xinxiang city, and Jincheng city. Anyang city accounts for four of these vanished villages, representing 57% of the total (Fig. 7). In 1941, Niu Xingang in Hebi city was destroyed during a war, resulting in its disappearance. In 1997, the government subsequently commenced the construction of the Panshitou Reservoir around the Qihe River Basin for water storage, leading to the relocation of certain traditional villages, such as Huaying village, Huadi village, and Hetou village in Anyang city. Additionally, in 2000, Yandi Street in Anyang city was demolished to address population density and limited land resources and to increase economic development. Rapid economic progress in modern times has prompted population migration to larger urban centers, consequently leading to a gradual decline in the population of some traditional villages and ultimately resulting in the disappearance of entire traditional villages.

Table 3 The causes of disappearance of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin.
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Fig. 7
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Temporal changes in the quantity of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin.

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Influencing factors for evolution

The formation and distribution of traditional villages are influenced by a combination of factors. Considering the historical development of the Qihe River Basin and its surrounding natural environment, these influencing factors can be categorized into two aspects: natural and cultural. These include terrain, hydrological conditions, political and cultural influences, transportation, and changes in land use36,47. Building on existing research and data availability, this study investigates both natural and social aspects, including elevation, slope, proximity to rivers, political and cultural influences, transportation, and changes in land use patterns.

Natural factors

Impact of topography on the distribution of traditional villages

The formation of villages is intricately linked to the elevation of the terrain. Varied elevations, resulting in diverse temperature and rainfall conditions, give rise to distinct natural landscapes and unique cultural traditions in traditional villages48. Elevation not only affects village climate, precipitation, and location but also profoundly influences agricultural productivity, residents’ way of life, cultural practices, and the surrounding topography49. To meet the research objectives, the region’s elevation is categorized into specific intervals50: elevations below 248 m are classified as plains, those between 248 and 588 m are classified as hills, and those above 588 m are classified as mountains. Analysis of the distribution of traditional villages on the basis of topography revealed that 14% of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin are situated in plain areas, 42% in hilly areas, and 44% in mountainous areas. The traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin were initially located predominantly in mountainous regions but later expanded into plains and hilly areas following the cessation of wars. Elevation significantly influences the distribution of traditional villages, with their prevalence decreasing as elevation increases. Flat terrain supports the sustained development of traditional villages, while high-altitude villages often face challenges in achieving substantial development because of limited accessibility (Fig. 8a).

Fig. 8
figure 8

Influencing factors of traditional villages in the core area of the Qihe River Basin: (a) Elevation of the Qihe River Basin. (b) Slope of the Qihe River Basin. (c) Distance between traditional villages and the Qihe River Basin. Note: The map was generated by GIS 10.8 (https://www.gscloud.cn/).

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Impact of slope on the distribution of traditional villages

The slope indicates the extent of terrain variation, with regions with steeper slopes having fewer distributed villages in generally51,52,53. By combining regional slope characteristics, a natural breakpoint classification method is utilized to categorize slope values into five classes: 0–7°, 7°–17°, 17°–27°, 27°–38°, 38°–78°. Analysis of the distribution of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin on the basis of slope reveals that they are predominantly concentrated in areas with slopes greater than 14°, particularly in hilly and mountainous regions with slopes ranging from 14° to 31°. This is attributed to the initial establishment of some traditional villages at higher elevations and steeper slope areas to avoid warfare and flood disasters. The majority of traditional villages situated on steeper slopes heavily rely on agriculture, possess relatively underdeveloped economies, and experience declining populations, thus indicating a more pronounced influence of slope on site selection (Fig. 8b).

Impact of distance from the water stream on the distribution of traditional villages

Using ArcGIS 10.8, a two-dimensional coordinate plane buffer analysis of the river network in the Qihe River Basin was performed with radii of 500 m and 1000 m, classifying the horizontal distance between traditional villages and the water system into three categories: riparian (0–500 m), near-water (500–1000 m), and far-water (> 1000 m)54. The analysis revealed that at a horizontal distance of 500 m from the water system, there were 19 traditional villages, constituting approximately 66% of the total villages in the Qihe River Basin (Fig. 8c). In the 500–1000 m distance range, only 4 villages were found, accounting for 14% of the total villages. Beyond 1000 m, there were 6 villages, accounting for 20% of the total. The number of villages generally decreased with increasing horizontal distance, and the farthest village was 4000 m from the water system. The analysis of village distribution suggests that the riparian area 50–500 m from the water system is the preferred location for village sites because of better water access, while sites farther away face challenges in water supply, leading to fewer villages. Field research data show that villages at 500 m are depth well-developed, with a focuse on tourism and preserving traditional landscapes with high residential satisfaction. Villages above 1000 m are neglected and lack protection, resulting in significant damage to traditional structures (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9
figure 9

The current situation of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin. Note Photographed and modified by the author.

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Human factors

Impact of politics and culture factors on traditional villages

Approximately 2.5 million years ago, the Qihe River Basin began its formation, but approximately 2.2 million years ago, it vanished gradually because of tectonic shifts. Approximately 1.1 million years ago, the Qihe River reappeared, flowing eastward, closely following its current course. Throughout its extensive history, the basin has left numerous traditional village sites, with politics and culture exerting significant influence across various historical periods (Table 4). Starting from the late Shang Dynasty, the region that now encompasses the city of Hebi in the Qihe River Basin witnessed the establishment of a capital city and two feudal capitals, which emerged as a key political, economic, and cultural hubs at the national or regional level. Traditional villages began to emerge in the vicinity during this era. During the Shang Dynasty and its prosperity, the number of traditional villages gradually increased. The prosperity of this period is documented in the “Book of Songs” with the description “the state is thousands of miles, where the people rest.” In the early Zhou Dynasty, King Cheng founded the state of Wei and designated Chaoge as its capital, leading to a gradual rise in traditional villages. During the Ming Dynasty, economic growth prompted the construction of city walls in Junxian (now Juxian), which is now a designated national key cultural relic protection area45. This period also resulted in a notable increase in traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin due to flooding from breaches in the Yellow River and Qin River into the Qihe River. During the Qing Dynasty, as economic stability prevailed, the number of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin steadily rose, with the majority situated near the Qihe River.

Table 4 Historical periods and major advances.
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Impact of traffic factors on traditional villages

The accessibility of transportation plays a crucial role in determining the locations of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin55,56,57. In the late Yin and Shang dynasties, the establishment of an imperial capital and two feudal capitals in the Hebi city region of the basin reflected a developed economy and transportation network. Consequently, traditional villages are clustered mainly in the flat terrain of Hebi city because of their convenient transportation links. Conversely, the upper and middle reaches of the Qihe River Basin, situated at the eastern base of the Taihang Mountains, face transportation challenges. To avoid war and flooding, some traditional villages were established in mountainous regions, sustaining themselves through agriculture. Nonetheless, the majority (86%) of traditional villages were positioned in areas with favorable transportation conditions, such as hills and plains. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, stringent regulations were imposed on the tea trade, leading to a flourishing market along the Ancient Tea Horse Road. Along this route in the Qihe River Basin, new traditional villages emerged, relying heavily on the road for trade and sustenance. Traditional villages with well-developed transportation can drive local economic and cultural development. This reliance on the Ancient Tea Horse Road as a vital artery and economic lifeline persisted, shaping the characteristics of these villages.

Impact of changes in land use types on traditional villages

Land use patterns are closely intertwined with human activities and play a significant role in shaping the evolution and growth of traditional villages58,59. The land use types were classified into five categories by ArcGIS 10.8: arable land, residential and public areas, transportation infrastructure, water bodies and facilities, and miscellaneous land. Changes in land use types were tracked from 1990 to 2020 in the Qihe River Basin. Over the observed period, there was a reduction in dryland area and an increase in paddy fields in the basin (Fig. 10). Grasslands experienced a marked decline while shrublands experienced an increase. Construction land and roads continued to expand, whereas orchards, water bodies, and forests remained relatively stable. These shifts were fueled primarily by urbanization and tourism development in the area. Traditional agricultural practices dwindled noticeably, with terraced fields giving way to regular fields, grasslands transitioning into wooded areas, and increased land allocation for production, residential spaces, and transportation networks. This transition signifies a shift toward ecological, landscaped, and efficient land utilization. The construction of the Panshitou Reservoir in 1998 triggered the disappearance and relocation of several traditional villages in the middle reaches of the Qihe River Basin. Following the reservoir’s completion by 2010, villages such as Huadi, Huaying, and Hetou gradually vanished or resettled. Higher elevations and steeper slopes exert a significant influence on the location of traditional villages, which predominantly occupy forested areas. Consequently, these regions present a lower density of such settlements. Historically, villages established at higher altitudes to avoid warfare were susceptible to transportation deficiencies, ultimately leading to their deterioration and abandonment. The transformation in land use has had a profound effect on traditional village development. While the expansion of construction land has led to a decline in traditional villages, it has also influenced their evolution. The evolving land use patterns have shifted traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin from agriculture-focused settlements to multi-functional tourism-oriented communities.

Fig. 10
figure 10

Land use change in the Qihe River Basin from 1990 to 2020. Note The map was generated by GIS 10.8 (https://www.gscloud.cn/).

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Impact of socio-economic factors on traditional villages

There is a strong correlation between the emergence and evolution of traditional villages and socio-economic conditions. Historically, this relationship has been evident in the Qihe River Basin. During the Tang Dynasty, frequent wars in the north disrupted the development of traditional villages in the region, leading to a period of stagnation. In contrast, the Song Dynasty saw a reversal of fortunes for the middle and lower reaches of the Qihe River Basin. Owing to their geographical advantages and abundant natural resources, these areas experienced rapid socio-economic growth, which in turn led to a proliferation of traditional villages and established the spatial distribution pattern of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin. The subsequent Qing Dynasty brought economic stability that further cemented this developmental pattern. However, as the dynasty waned, some villages sustained war-related damage, causing a decline in their populations. This historical context sets the stage for understanding the current state of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin.

Following the implementation of the reform and opening-up policy, regional infrastructure development and economic growth have had a profound impact on the preservation and development of traditional villages. As shown in Table 5, an analysis of the resident population, urbanization rate, and regional GDP in 2020 for the five urban districts in the Qihe River Basin reveals a significant trend. The majority of traditional villages are located in districts with a GDP less than 250 billion yuan, accounting for 83% of the total. Notably, Hebi city, which boasts the highest number of traditional villages, had a GDP of only 98.097 billion yuan in 2020. This value is substantially lower than that of Anyang city, which has the second-highest number of traditional villages and a GDP of 230.05 billion yuan in the same year. Furthermore, Anyang city has the lowest urbanization rate among the resident population, at 53.04%. These findings suggest that traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin are predominantly situated in regions with slower economic development and lower urbanization rates. This has helped preserve the architectural and spatial integrity of the villages, leading to a more favorable conservation status overall.

Table 5 Economic development of municipalities in the Qihe River Basin.
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Mechanisms influencing the spatiotemporal distribution of traditional villages

The spatial configuration of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin has traversed three stages: initial site selection, layout evolution, and pattern formation. Both natural and human factors exert pivotal influences on the development of traditional village spatial patterns across these stages, which are encapsulated as “nature as the foundation, culture as the catalyst” (Fig. 11). Nature as the foundation: Natural factors have continuously shaped the spatial patterns of traditional villages, particularly during the early phases of site selection. These factors provide fundamental conditions for traditional village formation. Areas with suitable elevations, gentle slopes, and proximity to rivers are preferred locations for village establishment. Culture as the Catalyst: Economic development levels and transportation accessibility are pivotal in fostering the development of traditional villages. Regions with robust economic conditions can provide economic sustenance to traditional villages, while accessible transportation facilitates their connections with the broader society60. These factors are instrumental in ensuring the sustained existence of traditional villages. However, rapid economic growth can also have adverse impacts on traditional villages, leading to changes in land use patterns and the disappearance of some traditional villages. These transformations disrupted the established distribution patterns from the early stages of traditional village formation. Nevertheless, with increasing government and societal attention to traditional villages, the detrimental effects of swift economic development are gradually waning.

Fig. 11
figure 11

Mechanisms influencing the spatiotemporal distribution of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin.

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Discussion

Exploration of the spatial patterns of traditional villages and influencing factors

The literature suggests that the formation and distribution of traditional villages are the result of a combination of natural and human factors36,44,45,46,47. The traditional villages in each region have distinctive characteristics. In the southern region, traditional villages are rich in water resources, forming a dispersed spatial pattern between the valleys61. In the northern region, owing to the shortage of water resources, traditional villages are concentrated around water sources, forming a spatial pattern centered on irrigation62. In the Qihe River Basin, the spatial layout of traditional villages exhibits a unique distribution of clusters, forming three core zones, with the main core zone in the upper reaches and two secondary core zones in the lower reaches, with both the main core zone and secondary core zone exhibiting a strong sense of spatiality and secondary core areas all show a strong sense of space. On the basis of the historical development of the Qihe River Basin and the surrounding natural environment, the influencing factors of traditional villages can be divided into two aspects, natural factors and human factors, which include the influences of topography and terrain, hydrological factors, politics and culture, traffic and changes in land use types36,47. This investigation, which utilized data and the ArcGIS 10.8 platform, scrutinized the spatiotemporal dispersion and evolutionary traits of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin. It qualitatively probes the correlation between their spatial dispersion and both natural and socio-economic determinants. The Qihe River Basin has experienced numerous alterations in river channels and flood disasters, culminating in the formation of stable river channels. The evolution of traditional villages has meticulously adhered to the water system, resulting in basin-type dispersion that deviates from the historical evolution of ancient villages4,17.

Influence of natural factors on the spatial patterns of traditional villages

Natural factors, such as topography and hydrology, play crucial roles in determining the location of traditional villages63. The upstream mountainous regions, characterized by rugged terrain and higher elevation, have historically limited agricultural expansion, leading to the concentrated development of villages in more accessible valleys. This pattern contrasts with the middle and lower stretches where villages are more dispersed, reflecting the influence of flatter terrain and better access to water resources. From the Qing Dynasty to modern times, changes in the type of land use and the natural environment led to the disappearance of some traditional villages. Fifty percent of the traditional villages that disappeared were due to the construction of the Panshi Reservoir, 30% were due to changes in nature and invasion of the harsh environment, and 20% were due to destruction caused by war. This reveals that land use change has also had an impact on the spatial pattern of traditional villages66,67. The proximity to water systems is particularly significant, with 80% of traditional villages situated within a 1000 m radius of water bodies, highlighting the importance of water for village development.

Influence of human factors on the spatial pattern of traditional villages

Human factors, including politics, culture, and transportation, have also significantly influenced village distribution64,65. During the Han Dynasty, the diversion of the Yellow River into the Wei River led to the consolidation of villages in the northern bank of the upper stretches, primarily to avoid conflicts and inundation disasters. Subsequently, villages gradually transitioned to the plains in the middle and lower stretches, with a notable increase during the Song and Qing dynasties. The construction of the Panshitou Reservoir in 1998 and intensive development in mountainous regions have resulted in the displacement of certain traditional villages, underscoring the impact of contemporary land-use changes and economic progression.

Influence of historical evolution on the spatial pattern of traditional villages

The historical evolution of traditional villages in the Qihe River Basin reveals a dynamic process of augmentation, diminution, and rebirth. From the Han Dynasty to the contemporary era, changes in river courses, flood disasters, and technological advancements have contributed to the current distribution of villages. The centroid migration across six distinct periods indicates a directional shift, reflecting alterations in the basin’s flow direction and highlighting the adaptive nature of village settlements in response to environmental and socio-economic changes.

Our findings are consistent with previous research highlighting the importance of water resources in village distribution5,44. However, several limitations, such as data bias and analytical constraints, should be addressed in future studies. When choosing the indicators of socio-economic factors, the statistical yearbooks of cities, counties and villages were consulted, but it could not be obtained the per capita disposable income of each traditional village. The relevant studies were consulted that the application of GDP was used to analyse this issue68,69. There may still be inaccuracies, but these inaccuracies have little impact on the overall impact on the spatial and temporal evolutionary characteristics of traditional villages shown in this study. In the future, we will continue to explore these data sources of traditional villages.

Conclusion

The Qihe River Basin, known for its rich cultural heritage and historical significance, provides a unique lens through which to examine the spatiotemporal distribution and evolution of traditional villages in China. Our research reveals a clustered distribution pattern of these villages, predominantly in the upper reaches and middle-lower plains, with their centroid shifting from southwest to northeast across six historical periods. This dynamic evolution is markedly influenced by both natural and human factors.

The findings highlight the critical role of proximity to water, elevation, slope, and socio-cultural factors in determining village locations. Notably, 80% of traditional villages lie within a 1000 m radius of the river network, underscoring the importance of water in sustaining village life and cultural inheritance. Natural environmental changes, such as river course alterations and land use modifications, have profoundly shaped village evolution and preservation. These findings reveal an uneven distribution of traditional villages, with concentrations in specific regions and a shift from mountainous areas to plains over time, driven by pursuits of better living conditions and economic opportunities. To effectively protect and revitalize the traditional village system, it is crucial to respect the underlying spatial patterns, particularly those formed by the river network and geographical features. A holistic protection strategy, encompassing landscape, water network, and targeted village conservation measures, is essential.

This study offers novel insights into the spatial relationship between water systems and traditional villages, enhancing our understanding of the unique spatial distribution characteristics of river basin villages. These findings provide a scientific foundation for policies aimed at the sustainable development and preservation of traditional villages not only in China but also in other regions globally facing similar challenges. Further research could explore the impact of climate change on the sustainability of these villages, the role of modernization in altering traditional village structures, and the effectiveness of different conservation strategies in preserving cultural heritage. Additionally, comparative studies across different river basins could reveal more universal patterns and principles governing the distribution and evolution of traditional villages.