Abstract
In recent years, the increasing trend of transnational marriages between international students in China and Chinese nationals has provided unique insights into Chinese society. This paper explores how these unions contribute to the development of social identities. Data was collected through participant observation and in-depth interviews with 15 heterosexual couples. Analysis of the findings supported the idea that these marriages foster a deeper understanding of the couples’ identities and those of their partners by expanding social networks. Identity construction in such unions increases tolerance, mutual understanding, and more flexible family relationships. This exchange of cultures also results in greater familiarity with cultural assumptions and enhanced acceptance of mutual influence, leading to positive adjustments within the host society.
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Introduction
Due to its open-door policy, China has become a major stakeholder in the international market, attracting many foreign traders (Lan, 2015; Sha, 2019). This unique scenario has sparked intense discussions regarding the interactions between Chinese people and foreigners in Chinese society. Sociological debates focus on the extent of foreigners’ social integration into Chinese society, their ability to access mainstream society, and their potential for forming new social connections within the host environment. Essentially, the impact of migration on China’s internal structure is a subject of close examination. Within the Chinese context, more specific questions arise: Do foreigners successfully integrate into Chinese society? Do they gain access to mainstream society, or do they tend to establish their parallel communities within the host country? In other words, is social cohesion likely to persist, or is it at risk?
Consequently, an ongoing discussion revolves around migrants and their impact on various societal facets, encompassing the job market, education, health, housing, recreation, and social networks. Transnational marriages also assume a pivotal role in these discussions, often sparking debate about whether migrants marry individuals from the host country. The answer to this question holds significant weight, serving as a standard for evaluating integration (Beck‐Gernsheim, 2007).
Existing literature often highlights cases of Chinese women marrying men from Western countries or advanced Asian economies such as South Korea or Japan, with many subsequently relocating to their husbands’ home countries (Constable, 2005; Oxfeld, 2005). However, given the rapid growth of the Chinese economy in recent decades, scholars have observed a notable trend: an increasing number of foreign spouses are now choosing to move to China to live with their Chinese wives (Farrer, 2008; Lan, 2015). This shift represents a noteworthy change in the dynamics of transnational marriages involving China
Although extensive research has focused on the marriages and relationships of foreign traders in various Chinese cities, there exists a gap in migration literature concerning the interpersonal relationships and transnational marriages between international students studying in China and Chinese locals. The primary inquiry surrounding this phenomenon is, ‘What sets apart these types of marriages involving international students from other marriages involving foreign traders?’ Therefore, this article aims to uncover a relatively unexplored aspect of transnational marriages in China by examining the lived experiences of international students, addressing this unique gap in the research.
Literature review
Historically, cross-cultural marriages have served pivotal roles in various spheres, notably in establishing trading networks, fostering cultural exchanges, and promoting religious beliefs (Bulliet et al., 2018: 384; Falola and Usman, 2009: 272; Kayadibi, 2011: 6; Lapidus, 2014: 432; Sen, 2009: 158). They have also been implicated in contributing to colonial expansion (Ipsen, 2015; Lansing, 2000). However, the scarcity of archival material has limited insights within historical literature into the real-life experiences of individuals living within cross-cultural family structures within trading networks (Ipsen, 2015: 12; Marsden and Ibañez-Tirado, 2015: 147). Aligning with historical trends, researchers have spotlighted the active role of cross-cultural unions in trade network dynamics. They highlight the importance of resource exchange within these intimate relationships, highlighting the mutual benefits of couples’ cultural, economic, and social resources (Farrer, 2008; Marsden and Ibañez-Tirado, 2015). This emphasis sheds light on the reciprocal advantages arising from such unions
Previous studies on transnational marriages often concentrated on Chinese women marrying foreigners primarily for migration purposes (Clark, 2001; Constable, 2003; Ma et al., 2010). However, new avenues for international migration studies have emerged with China’s emergence as a significant player in the global economic market. The substantial growth of the Chinese economy has notably attracted international traders seeking to establish businesses in China and form family ties with Chinese women (Lan, 2015; Sha, 2019). Consequently, more Western men aspire to reside in Shanghai with their Chinese wives while maintaining professional engagements (Farrer, 2008).
Trading hubs such as Guangzhou and Yiwu have become significant focal points for this collaborative endeavor. Yiwu has officially become an international trading city in Zhejiang Province (Guozhu & Raja, 2022). These locations, particularly since 2000, amidst the increased trade between China and countries in Africa, South Asia, and the Middle East, have attracted thousands of predominantly male traders to China. Many of these traders choose to marry Chinese women and establish families in these cities (Lan, 2015; Ma, 2012; Methews et al., 2017; Zhou, 2017). Research has revealed that transnational marriages in China often exhibit a power imbalance, with the Chinese spouse holding greater economic and social influence than the foreign spouse (Lan, 2015). This power disparity can lead to conflicts and tensions within the relationship. However, despite these challenges, many transnational marriages in China proved successful and enduring as couples navigate their difficulties and construct strong, affectionate relationships (Farrer, 2008).
Guangzhou, the capital city of Guangdong province, has observed a surge in transnational marriages between Chinese and foreigners (Marsh, 2014; Lan, 2015). Specifically, marriages between Chinese women and African traders are increasingly prevalent. These African traders often engage in small-scale entrepreneurship and operate within the informal economic sector (Mathews & Yang, 2012). Studies focusing on marriages between Chinese women and African traders in Guangzhou have shed light on the challenging and precarious nature of married life for these couples. Factors such as visa policies and institutional barriers often compel them to make difficult choices, including relocation to their husband’s country or enduring prolonged periods of separation (Castillo, 2016; Lan, 2015; Zhou, 2017). Moreover, cultural and religious differences and prevalent stereotypes further contribute to tensions within these relationships (Mathews et al., 2017; Zhou, 2017).
The literature cited above highlights the impact of transnational marriages in establishing business connections, trading networks, facilitating immigration, and fostering cross-cultural understanding in China (Sha, 2019). In contrast to most existing studies that primarily examine legal and cultural factors influencing transnational family strategies, especially among foreign traders in China, this article takes a unique approach by exploring the subject from the perspective of encounters between international students and Chinese individuals during their academic tenure. By examining the emerging phenomenon of transnational marriages among international students in China and their Chinese partners, this article aims to contribute to broader sociological scholarship concerning the role of social identity change. It aims to provide insights into how social identities can transform within the context of cross-cultural unions in the Chinese setting.
Theoretical framework
Social identity theory explains how individuals define and affiliate with groups based on shared characteristics and experiences. The theory posits that individuals aim to maintain positive self-esteem and seek acceptance from others. They derive their self-worth and identity from membership in various social groups. Moreover, individuals categorize themselves and others into these social groups based on shared characteristics such as age, race, gender, nationality, and occupation. These social groups give individuals a sense of belonging and significantly influence their attitudes, behaviors, and self-perceptions. The theory further suggests that individuals are more likely to identify with groups that uphold positive societal values. Social identity theory offers a framework for understanding how individuals define themselves and their relationships with others through their membership in social groups and how this can shape their attitudes and behaviors (Tajfel & Turner, 1979).
The Social Identity Model of Identity Change (SIMIC) is a framework built upon social identity theory, which delves into how group affiliations influence well-being during life-changing events. SIMIC suggests that when individuals undergo changes in their social identities, they navigate a “social identity transition” process through two pathways: the Social Identity Continuity Pathway, involving the maintenance of existing social networks for self-continuity, and the Social Identity Gain Pathway, wherein individuals seek new group memberships to acquire new social identities (Jones & Jetten, 2011; Haslam et al., 2008; Haslam et al., 2018; Jetten et al., 2009). In this article, we interviewed international students and their partners in China. These marriages underscore the significance of the Social Identity Gain Pathways, where individuals develop friendships with locals, foster a sense of belonging in the host culture, and expand their social networks. Transnational marriages in an educational context represent a novel approach to exploring social identity change as an integration strategy during overseas study. This area remains relatively unexplored in China.
Methodological considerations
As an international student, the first author had the opportunity to build connections with the participants. This involved attending dinner gatherings and participating in family events such as birthdays, anniversaries, and religious festivals like Eid and Christmas. The researchers utilized participant observation as the primary method and conducted in-depth unstructured interviews as the second data collection tool. Additionally, digital ethnography was employed to gather additional information. The authors maintained regular contact with international students through “WeChat,” a Chinese social media application, to observe their online social interactions. This connectivity through social media facilitated a deeper understanding of the couples’ experiences and generated further research questions.
The researchers used purposive and snowball sampling techniques to interview 15 international students and their Chinese spouses. The participants mainly consisted of international students in Chinese institutions, recent graduates pursuing post-doctorate studies, or involved in businesses in China. Notably, none of the international students were of Chinese ethnicity. The researchers were fluent in Chinese for daily communication but conducted the interviews in English as the participants were proficient in English. In-depth unstructured interviews were scheduled according to the participants’ availability during various periods: October–December 2017, February 2018, October 2018, and November–December 2022. These interviews, typically lasting around an hour per couple, were documented through note-taking.
The data from these informal interviews were analyzed, identifying five major themes for the study. All themes derived from the field notes and interviews were critically analyzed and compared. Each individual was assigned a unique identifier from IS-1 to IS-15 to ensure participant privacy Table 1.
Main themes
The motivation for transnational marriage
As an international student in Guangzhou, I observed a positive change in China’s attitude toward foreigners. Local students appeared more curious about meeting international students and learning about different cultures. Throughout my research, I noticed a growing trend of international students forming friendships and romantic relationships with Chinese students. A recent study on international students in China confirmed this trend (Raja et al., 2021). International students developed numerous friendships with Chinese peers and found that these relationships facilitated their adaptation to Chinese society, language and cultural learning, and smoother integration into the local community. These friendships also offered valuable insights into the local way of life.
During our fieldwork, we observed that when the participants initially arrived in China as international students, they primarily focused on academic pursuits. Marriage or romantic relationships with Chinese individuals were not part of their initial plans. However, as they settled into life in China, they found connecting with the local community and making friends with Chinese people intriguing and beneficial. Cultivating these local friendships became a strategic approach, enabling them to learn about the host culture and enrich their social experiences in China. Most of these interactions with Chinese individuals occurred on the university campus, where strong friendship bonds were formed. Over time, as these friendships deepened, some naturally evolved into romantic relationships. This transformation significantly influenced the participants’ motivations toward transnational marriage. Their genuine connections with their Chinese partners fostered a deep understanding of each other’s backgrounds and cultures, further nurturing the desire for a long-lasting commitment. Although marriage with Chinese individuals wasn’t initially a consideration, the meaningful relationships they built with local friends led to a change in perspective.
In 2015, during his first year in Guangzhou, Participant IS-1, a 33-year-old man from Latvia, met his girlfriend at the university. Their initial encounter led to an instant connection, and they soon began dating. As he continued his Ph.D. studies, their relationship grew stronger. By the second year of his program, they decided to get married. Their love story exemplifies how the initial connection formed during his academic journey in Guangzhou evolved into a profound and lasting relationship, culminating in marriage. It is a testament to the transformative power of international experiences, where individuals from diverse backgrounds come together, sharing love, culture, and life’s journey.
In successful relationships with their Chinese partners, the international students decided to marry while pursuing their studies in China. Remarkably, their cultural, religious, and traditional differences did not present obstacles. Instead, the driving force behind their choice to marry was their profound and unwavering love for each other, ultimately resulting in a transnational union. Faced with potential uncertainties and challenges in cross-cultural situations, these couples firmly believed that mutual understanding and personal choices played pivotal roles in their decision-making. Their intentional decision to be with someone from a different social, cultural, ethnic, religious, or national background emphasizes the profound influence of love and human connection that transcends these differences.
Participant IS-3’s Chinese spouse, a 29-year-old female, shared her experience regarding their decision to marry. Initially, she expressed having mixed feelings about marrying a foreigner. Her parents held concerns about potential cultural, language, and ethnic differences. However, their perspective changed when they had the opportunity to meet her boyfriend. Upon meeting him, her parents grew fond of him due to his respectful and well-educated demeanor. This positive impression played a significant role in easing their concerns. They recognized qualities in him that transcended cultural boundaries and made him a suitable partner for their daughter. This example illustrates how personal characteristics and qualities can bridge cultural gaps, influencing family perceptions and ultimately leading to acceptance and support for transnational marriages.
During our fieldwork and interviews with couples, it became evident that the international students’ educational backgrounds positively influenced the strength of their relationships and their families’ approval of their marriage proposals. The participants emphasized that the high level of education held by both partners played a vital role in their parents’ decision-making process, ultimately leading to the endorsement of their transnational marriages. The Chinese spouses and their parents placed trust in the international students due to their solid academic backgrounds and understanding of Chinese culture. The partners’ educational status became a key factor in fostering trust and confidence in the potential success of their marriages. It showcased a commitment and cultural understanding, which, in turn, contributed to the wholehearted acceptance of these transnational unions by the families. This observation underscores how educational achievements can foster mutual respect and facilitate the harmonious blending of diverse cultural backgrounds within transnational relationships.
Participant IS-4, a 30-year-old female from Jordan, shared her parents’ initial concerns regarding her desire to marry a Chinese man. They worried about the distance and potential challenges of a transnational marriage. However, their perspective underwent a positive shift when they had the opportunity to meet her boyfriend and his family. Upon meeting him and getting to know his family, IS-4’s parents were reassured. Witnessing the happiness in their daughter’s eyes, they became confident that her Chinese partner would wholeheartedly care for her and support her well-being. This positive impression of her boyfriend and his family ultimately led to the acceptance of their relationship and, in due course, the approval of their transnational marriage.
Likewise, Participant IS-5’s Chinese spouse, a 37-year-old male, shared his experience regarding their transnational marriage. Initially, his mother held deep concerns about the cultural differences. However, her worries began to dissipate when she had the opportunity to meet her son’s girlfriend in person. Upon their meeting, his mother came to understand and accepted her son’s choice. She recognized that while there might indeed be cultural differences, these differences could be overcome through understanding, the passage of time, and mutual respect. This example of acceptance by the Chinese spouse’s mother highlights the pivotal role of personal interactions in bridging cultural divides and fostering support for transnational marriages.
It is important to note that parents initially had concerns about transnational marriages, fearing potential challenges arising from cross-cultural differences. However, the couples’ profound curiosity about transnational marriage and the high level of education achieved by the international students ultimately offered reassurance and support for their decisions.
Adopting religion
Religion was crucial in pre-marriage agreements, especially for international students with religious affiliations. A significant finding was that Chinese partners readily embraced their partner’s religion. During interviews, participants openly shared their religious affiliations, which were carefully considered by students from religious backgrounds and their concerned families before entering into transnational marriages. The willingness of Chinese partners to embrace their partner’s religion significantly influenced the decision-making process for these couples, facilitating their journey into cross-cultural marriages. Among the 15 international students in this study, 9 held religious beliefs, such as Islam and Christianity. In these cases, their spouses adopted the same religious faith. However, there was no record of their spouses adopting any religion among the remaining six of the 15 international students with no religious beliefs.
Participant IS-5, a 32-year-old female from South Korea, shared her experience regarding her transnational marriage. Before the marriage proposal, her mother had a condition: her future husband must share her religious beliefs in Christianity. Remarkably, her husband wholeheartedly accepted this condition and embraced the faith, bringing her and her family immense joy. After their marriage, he actively accompanied his wife to the church in Guangzhou, demonstrating his firm commitment to their shared faith. This willingness to adopt her religion solidified their bond and fostered mutual understanding in their cross-cultural marriage.
In addition to concerns related to religious matters, Muslim international students attached great importance to following halal practices, particularly concerning food choices. Their Chinese spouses demonstrated understanding and support by embracing Islam and adhering to the Islamic food pattern (Halal) and dress code. The Muslim international students deeply appreciated these cooperative gestures, highlighting their Chinese partners’ commitment and emphasizing their shared values and beliefs.
Participant IS-7’s Chinese spouse, a 31-year-old female, shared her experience regarding their transnational marriage. She expressed deep admiration for her Muslim husband, emphasizing his honesty as a significant trait that attracted her. Their marriage ceremony occurred in a mosque, signifying their shared commitment to Islamic values. Being married to a Muslim, she embraced his religious practices, which included consuming Halal food and wearing a full-covering dress following Islamic customs. Additionally, she actively engaged in religious activities, such as joining her husband for Friday prayers at the mosque.
The researchers observed and compared the WeChat activities of various non-religious transnational couples in long-standing relationships and newer ones. They noticed significant transformations in their attire and way of life, observing a growing tendency towards embracing religiosity as time passed. Through field notes, casual discussions, and interviews with these couples, it became evident that religious individuals encountered difficulties when considering forsaking their faith and converting to another religion to secure their partner’s approval. Interestingly, non-religious couples exhibited greater adaptability in embracing their spouse’s faith despite having no religious background.
The findings highlighted that Chinese spouses were generally receptive to embracing their partners’ religious practices, largely facilitated by their secular beliefs and lack of prior religious affiliations. However, there remains a gap in our understanding, and it remains an area for future research to explore how Chinese individuals with pre-existing religious affiliations would navigate the process of adopting their partner’s religion within the context of transnational marriage. The study underscored the significance of religion as an essential factor for international students involved in such relationships, exerting a substantial influence on their decision-making processes, particularly if they had religious affiliations. These findings suggest that religious considerations play a vital role in shaping the dynamics of transnational relationships, particularly among international students with strong religious ties. This research shed light on the importance of religious factors and the adaptability of Chinese spouses when embracing their partner’s faith. Future investigations should delve into how Chinese individuals with established religious affiliations manage this aspect within the context of transnational marriages.
Transnational marriage as identity gain
The findings emphasized the important role of being part of multiple social groups in the successful cultural adaptation of transnational couples. These couples strongly commit to their new group affiliations within the host society, providing valuable social support. An integral aspect of these transnational marriages was the expansion of their social networks for both partners. This process of establishing new social connections positively contributed to the well-being and adaptation of individuals in their new environment. It enabled them to foster a positive social identity within the host country, facilitating their integration and adjustment. The mutual support and sense of belonging within these diverse social networks contributed to a more inspiring and fulfilling experience in the transnational context.
The study’s findings highlighted the importance of social networks in the context of transnational marriages. Both international students and their spouses actively participated in various social gatherings with friends, and family members. These gatherings encompassed the celebration of religious festivals such as Eid, Christmas, New Year, and various family events. Additionally, the couples engaged in Chinese cultural activities such as the spring and dragon boat festivals, fostering a deeper connection with the local culture. The Chinese partners, in turn, had the opportunity to engage in international gatherings, allowing them to meet people from diverse cultural backgrounds and establish new social connections. Subsequently, after marriage, the couples formed close relationships with each other’s friends and relatives, expanding their social circles. This shift in group affiliations played a positive role in facilitating cross-cultural interactions and aided in their adaptation to their new lives in the transnational setting.
Participant IS-3’s Chinese spouse, a 29-year-old female, shared her experience following her marriage to a university student. She described her familiarity with her husband’s social circle, where most of his friends were from Pakistan. Actively, she participated in gatherings and parties hosted by Pakistani students alongside her husband and became familiar with some of his other international friends and lab mates. Through their marriage, she felt that she had expanded her network and now had connections with many individuals from various parts of the world. This exposure to a diverse group of people from different cultural backgrounds enriched her social experiences and provided her with a more comprehensive understanding of the international community. IS-3’s story exemplifies how transnational marriages can open doors to new social circles and facilitate meaningful connections with people worldwide. It highlights the value of these cross-cultural interactions in broadening perspectives and creating a supportive and diverse social network.
The study participants acknowledged the importance of belonging to multiple groups. They were affiliated with three communities: the local host network, the international circle, and their families. Membership in these diverse groups brought personal satisfaction and played a crucial role in facilitating their successful cultural adaptation. Exposure to different cultures made them feel more comfortable with the unfamiliar.
Participant IS-5, a 32-year-old female from South Korea, shared her post-marriage experiences. She mentioned being a part of three distinct social groups in China. The first group included her family and friends; the second consisted of her Korean friends, and the third was the international students’ group. She expressed particular enthusiasm for her involvement in the international students’ group, where she found herself deeply engaged. Interestingly, her husband also had numerous connections with international students, many of whom became his friends. Consequently, she felt integrated into multiple social circles in China. Her story underscores how transnational marriages can enhance one’s social life as couples seamlessly blend into each other’s social networks. The diverse connections within these groups provide an opportunity to experience various cultures and build meaningful friendships with people from different backgrounds. It vividly demonstrates the positive impact of cross-cultural relationships in expanding one’s social horizons.
The theme reveals that transnational marriages provide an opportunity to experience different cultures by forging new social connections in the host society (Werbner, 1999). The participants underscored the importance of marrying a Chinese partner and emphasized the significance of group membership. They believe that being part of their spouse’s social circle can lead to potential business and trade opportunities in China.
Participant IS-2, a 38-year-old male from Mexico, shared his plans to launch a new business in China. He mentioned the advantage of maintaining close contact with his wife’s friends, which has proven beneficial for his entrepreneurial endeavors. Furthermore, he actively establishes new friendships, believing these connections will be valuable for his future business ventures. IS-2’s statement highlights the significance of social connections within transnational marriage. He lays the foundation for potential business opportunities and growth in China by nurturing relationships with his wife’s friends and forming new friendships. The support and networking opportunities within his social circle significantly contribute to his entrepreneurial journey in the host country.
The study revealed that forming new group memberships through transnational marriage has practical benefits for future business or employment opportunities. Participants acknowledged that marrying a Chinese partner could benefit their business endeavors in China. The presence of a Chinese spouse was seen as a facilitator for business adjustments and offered positive support to their foreign spouses. Despite global pandemic restrictions on mobility and visa issuance, the participants did not face such barriers, which they attributed to having a Chinese spouse. The Chinese partner’s native knowledge and understanding of the local society proved helpful in solving problems and finding job opportunities in the local market. The participants firmly believed that having a Chinese spouse was a valuable asset, contributing to their professional success, business plans, and overall social benefits in China. Their transnational marriages offered practical advantages in navigating the complexities of business in a foreign country.
Participant IS-1, a 33-year-old male from Latvia, shared his experiences after marrying a Chinese partner. He has formed close relationships with several Chinese friends and considers his wife’s friends his own. Actively engaging in various Chinese functions and events, as a marketing student, he attended the Canton Fair exhibition in Guangzhou and even volunteered as a translator for friends from his country visiting Guangzhou for business. He believes these experiences are incredibly valuable for his future business endeavors. Immersed in Chinese and European cultures, he gains insights into both markets, providing advantages for potential business ventures. With his European background, he understands how to sell products in Europe and is familiar with Chinese customers and their preferences. His story exemplifies the practical benefits of transnational marriage, offering unique opportunities to gain insights into diverse cultures and markets. His varied experiences and connections enable him to bridge gaps and create potential business opportunities in both regions.
The findings strongly support the significance of diverse social groups in facilitating sociocultural learning and providing potential benefits for future employment or business endeavors in China. This highlights cultivating a positive social identity in adapting to the host culture and shaping future aspirations. Through participation in various social groups via transnational marriage, individuals can gain valuable insights into different cultures, which can be advantageous in their professional pursuits and business plans. Expanding social connections fosters a sense of belonging and enables individuals to navigate the complexities of the host society more easily. Ultimately, the study highlights how establishing diverse social ties through transnational marriage is pivotal in shaping personal and professional growth, contributing to a more successful and fulfilling life in the host country.
Communication and communication competence
The theme revolves around the day-to-day interactions of transnational couples and the coexistence of two cultures, leading to a new identity. The couples experienced fewer language barriers because partners were proficient in at least two languages: Chinese and English. International students learned Mandarin as a requirement for their degree, which improved their communication abilities and reduced language challenges. However, some language barriers persisted, especially when dealing with family members who could not speak English and Chinese or only speak a regional dialect. The language barrier became evident when the researcher observed parents visiting China and interacting with their in-laws. In these situations, the couples acted as translators, facilitating meaningful interactions between their families. This aspect of the study underscores the importance of effective communication in transnational marriages and how language skills are crucial in bridging cultural gaps and fostering understanding between different family members.
After entering into transnational marriages, the Chinese spouses became multilingual through daily interactions in English and their partner’s mother tongue, developing proficiency in more than one language. These Chinese spouses noted a significant improvement in English proficiency after getting married. The most commonly used communication channels were “English” and “Chinese.” Depending on the situation, they would switch between languages. For instance, they used English when communicating with family members, or their partners would act as translators if there were language barriers.
Participant IS-4, a 30-year-old female from Jordan, shared her language experiences after her transnational marriage. She converses in Chinese with her husband and in-laws, using Arabic when speaking to her parents. Moreover, she interacts with her international friends in English. Consequently, she proficiently speaks three languages, adapting to the linguistic preferences of the people she communicates with. Her experiences illustrate how transnational marriages can cultivate multilingual abilities and the flexibility to utilize different languages across various social contexts. These language skills enable her to establish connections with diverse groups and facilitate effective communication in her daily interactions. This linguistic diversity enriches her cross-cultural relationships and enhances her experiences in the transnational setting.
In the daily lives of transnational couples, their language proficiency facilitates meaningful social interactions with their in-laws, other family members, and international friends, fostering a deeper understanding and cultural learning through mutual interactions. However, some international students shared that they face communication barriers with their Chinese in-laws due to the language differences. The students often have limited proficiency in Chinese, while their Chinese in-laws might not be fluent in English. In such situations, their spouses act as translators, effectively bridging the language gap by interpreting between the local dialect and English or Chinese, as expressed by the participant:
“We speak Mandarin at home, but my mother-in-law cannot. She belongs to the countryside (Changzhou), and they have a different dialect. However, with other family members, I speak in Chinese. My daughter is also learning her grandmother’s native Korean and English languages. Since she doesn’t need a teacher to learn these languages, she can naturally pick them up at home” (IS-11, Female, Age: 31, South Korea)
On the other hand, the Chinese spouses also considered themselves multilingual after the transnational marriage. They affirmed that the marriage provided a source of learning and improving their foreign language skills, particularly English. As one Chinese spouse expressed:
“I believe that my English has improved. Before, I studied Business English as my undergraduate, but I could not speak English fluently. Now, I can communicate much better than before” (Chinese Spouse of IS-6, Female, Age: 28)
This theme highlights the role of transnational marriages in the communication development of Chinese spouses. Such marriages allow them to actively practice and refine their foreign language skills, particularly in English. This linguistic improvement enhances their communication capabilities and nurtures more effective cross-cultural interactions within the relationship. The data collected from participants sheds light on how the multilingualism of transnational couples significantly influences their assimilation into diverse societies, facilitating their adaptation to varied sociocultural environments. Proficiency in multiple languages equips Chinese spouses to navigate and acclimate more proficiently to their partners’ countries abroad.
Future aspiration
Interview data, informal conversations, and participant observation revealed a common theme among all transnational couples: uncertainty about their long-term plans for residing in China. Although initially interested in pursuing employment opportunities in China, they typically intended to stay for a fixed period, often around ten years post-graduation, with the ultimate intention to leave. This uncertainty stemmed from China’s policy of not granting citizenship to foreigners, preventing couples from fully integrating into the host society and obtaining permanent residency. As a result, they perceive their long-term prospects in China as uncertain, which may influence their decisions to explore opportunities in other countries or return to the home countries of their foreign spouses.
Participant IS-15, a 33-year-old male from Iran, expressed his intention to stay in China after graduation for five to ten years before ultimately moving to Europe. His decision is primarily influenced by China’s policy of not granting permanent citizenship to foreigners. Consequently, he aspires for his children to grow up in Europe. Despite planning to relocate, he envisions frequent visits to China, intending to make at least three business trips annually. His choice exemplifies transnational couples’ complexities regarding long-term settlement, influenced by citizenship policies and the desire to provide a distinct environment for their children’s upbringing.
Conversely, participants from Guangzhou and Shenzhen expressed their desire to remain in China with their families and explore new business ventures. They plan for their children to attend primary school in China to immerse them in the local language and culture. These participants perceive China as advantageous for their families’ future and business endeavors. They highly regard the cultural and educational benefits of their children studying in China, as it fosters a stronger connection with the host society and promotes cross-cultural understanding. Their decisions reflect a deep commitment to embracing the opportunities and experiences that transnational living in China offers for their family’s growth and development, as articulated by one of the participants:
“My daughter is six years old. My wife wanted our daughter to learn Chinese, so I went to a primary school in Guangzhou with my daughter. I am also looking to establish a business in China soon. While my wife manages my business in Mexico, she often visits China for business purposes. Through her connections, I have the opportunity to make many business deals here in Guangzhou” (IS-2, Male, Age: 38, Mexico)
Participant IS-2 shared his experiences and plans after moving to Guangzhou with his daughter. His wife’s wish for their daughter to learn Chinese led them to enroll her in a primary school in Guangzhou. Additionally, he expressed his intention to start a business venture in China. Simultaneously, his wife oversees his business operations in Mexico and frequently visits China for business-related purposes. Utilizing his wife’s connections, he has the opportunity to explore and establish various business deals in Guangzhou. This highlights the potential benefits of transnational living, providing educational opportunities for children and promising business prospects in the host country.
The theme explores the future settlement and residence plans of transnational couples. Chinese spouses believed their future was closely linked to their partners’ employment prospects. It was observed that international students with Chinese wives were more inclined to sustain regular ties with the host society for future employment and business opportunities. However, challenges associated with obtaining permanent citizenship in China hinder the international students’ complete integration into the host society. This factor results in isolation and detachment from the host country, even though they aspire to establish a long-term presence.
Discussion
After transitioning to China, social identity transformation is viewed as a strategic approach for international students adjusting to the host society (Raja et al., 2021). The study emphasizes the significance of the depth of friendships between international students and local Chinese individuals. The evolution of personal romantic relationships often stems from successful friendships, eventually leading to ‘transnational marriages.’ This article examines the experiences of international students through the framework of social identity theory. Specifically, it investigates the processes involved in the transnational marriages of international students and the extent to which these processes facilitate adaptation and cross-cultural learning. This process ultimately leads to the forming of a new social identity, involving the establishment of new group memberships within the host society.
We researched the existing literature on Chinese societal attitudes towards transnational marriages. For instance, a study by Brady (2000) shed light on the fact that, in Chinese society, friendships between foreigners and Chinese individuals were restricted and subject to regulation by the state’s foreign affairs policy during the early reform era in the 1980s and 1990s. Similarly, other researchers have noted that short-term interpersonal relationships between Chinese women and foreigners often led to accusations of treason and engagement in prostitution. Women who married Westerners were frequently perceived as materialistic individuals seeking “passports” or “plane tickets” to emigrate from China (Clark, 2001; Constable, 2003; Farrer, 2008; Ma et al., 2010). Interracial marriage gradually gained more acceptance in the 2000s, attributed to China’s late-1990s opening-up policy and the increasing flow of foreigners (Biao, 2003; Farrer, 2002).
Farrer (2010) highlights that Chinese perceptions of interracial romance are influenced by a ‘racialized sexual hierarchy’ in which white masculinity is positioned at the top and African and South Asian (black and brown) masculinities are at the bottom. In modern Chinese society, Chinese/white marriages are more favored than Chinese/black marriages, despite the relative decline of Western privilege. There’s a prevalent belief that a woman can expect a better life and a promising future by marrying a white man, regardless of nationality. Conversely, Chinese society often rejects and discriminates against women who date or marry black males (Frazier & Zhang, 2014; Marsh, 2014).
In contrast to the earlier examples, our study’s findings offer a positive and unique perspective on Chinese transnational marriages, which diverges from the prevailing negative attitudes within local society toward such unions. For instance, interviews with Chinese spouses revealed that their parents initially had concerns about potential cultural differences, perceiving them as obstacles in bridging two cross-cultural families. However, the international students’ highly educated and multicultural status significantly influenced the decision to enter into a transnational marriage. This new phase of life, represented by transnational marriage, is greatly facilitated by the partners’ acquisition of a social identity, which includes their ability to engage with diverse cultural groups.
Regarding the religious affiliations of the participants, our findings align with prior studies conducted by Zhou (2017) and Sha (2019). These studies revealed that Chinese spouses tended to adopt the religious practices of their partners. Our findings also highlight that Chinese spouses were open to embracing their partners’ religion to strengthen their bond. Transnational marriages contributed to expanding social networks, which, from the couples’ perspective, proved beneficial for adapting to the host culture and considering long-term prospects, particularly concerning future employment and business opportunities. In this context, the concept of ‘identity gain’ offers valuable insights into adapting to the host culture and integrating into the host society by broadening social networks. In this case, transnational marriages facilitated the acquisition of a positive identity gain, enriching cross-cultural and intercultural interactions.
The study referred to the unifying role of social connectedness in expanding social networks. Attachment to diverse groups has been associated with successful adaptation in the host society (Jetten et al., 2015; Raja et al., 2021). Moreover, these new social groups offered a sense of belonging to different cultures, resulting in a multifaceted social identity. The findings revealed that transnational couples not only retained their previous identities but also evolved into multicultural individuals, as they now belong to new families and various group memberships, including, but not limited to, family, local, co-national, and international friends’ circles. The expansion of social networks positively contributed to their adjustment to this new phase of life. The findings effectively illustrate the concept of social identity gain, which can be applied to this study, offering a deeper understanding of the role played by associations with multiple groups as coping mechanisms in transnational marriages, particularly within the context of Chinese society. In this way, international students and their Chinese spouses comprehensively engaged in various social networks, ranging from local to international, offering a distinct perspective on identity transformation.”
The couples’ future aspirations regarding settling in China were influenced by their affiliation with various social groups, their employment opportunities, and the potential for future business ventures. However, due to the unavailability of permanent residence, international students cannot obtain Chinese citizenship, hindering their integration and long-term settlement prospects (Lan, 2015). This situation may threaten their social identity within the host society.
Last but not least, the couples in this study were multilingual, possessing various communication skills for their daily interactions and when engaging with other family members. However, “English” and “Chinese” were identified as the primary means of communication among the couples. The findings confirm that cross-cultural interactions can play a pivotal role in pathways to identity gain, enhancing host-culture adaptation, fostering multilingual competence, and promoting the development of multicultural behaviors. When exposed to diverse cultural environments and engaging with people from different backgrounds, they often undergo cross-cultural and intercultural experiences. Nevertheless, the challenges arising from their efforts to navigate cultural differences can be particularly pronounced in the initial stages of these encounters. However, they may gradually realize that they have consciously or subconsciously adapted to their new surroundings and become an integral part of the cultural tapestry.
Conclusion
The marriages between international students in China offer a fresh perspective on intercultural marriages. This novel study explores a relatively unexplored territory in transnational studies. These marriages give international students a unique avenue for gaining insights into Chinese culture, traditions, language, and future employment and entrepreneurship prospects. Furthermore, with an increasing number of international students choosing to study in China, such marriages may become increasingly common in the future, thereby playing a role in bridging cultural divides and fostering mutual understanding between diverse groups. Ultimately, they contribute to the formation of a new social identity.
Nonetheless, transnational marriages come with certain challenges. Language barriers and cultural differences can create difficulties in communication and mutual understanding. Additionally, these marriages may encounter obstacles in obtaining legal status or citizenship and face challenges in maintaining long-distance relationships when the couple must return to their respective countries or live apart. While data on the precise numbers and characteristics of transnational marriages involving international students in China are scarce, it is evident that these marriages can pose a distinct set of challenges. However, with effective communication and understanding, these marriages also have the potential to facilitate mutual growth and enrichment.
The unique dynamics of transnational marriages between international students and their Chinese partners can offer valuable insights into various social bonds. These marriages have the potential to promote a profound understanding of more flexible family relationships and individual characteristics, which are particularly pivotal in a postmodern world. Exploring and embracing differences can promote greater familiarity, improved comprehension of one’s cultural assumptions, and enhanced acceptance of mutual influence. Ultimately, a transnational marriage can challenge partners to expand their adaptability regarding acceptance and understanding. The development of a new identity within families can also be observed in the marital life of international students. Therefore, identity gain should be viewed as a source of understanding, tolerance, and compromise rather than merely an identity shift. This study deepens our understanding of the identity discourse by examining how marriages between diverse cultures lead to new social bonds and an increased openness to cross-cultural influence. For individuals, the choices and strategies related to whether to stay in one place or another, with both challenges and joys, can be considered an identity process. For families, social identity gain is more about a state of well-being than a moment of transition.
‘Limitations’ and possible ‘future research’
Given our sample size, the findings may not be broadly generalized. Nonetheless, it is essential to note the emergence of transnational marriages between international students and local Chinese in China. The relatively small sample size of 15 interviews is attributable to several factors. Firstly, our research focused on a highly specialized and specific population, posing challenges in recruiting more participants. The individuals within this population are limited in number and possess unique expertize crucial for fulfilling our study’s objectives. Access to official data was also restricted as we attempted to acquire statistics on marriages involving international students and Chinese nationals, but we could not obtain this information for official reasons. Consequently, further research is required to investigate transnational marriages with larger sample sizes. Future research endeavors could explore various aspects of transnational marriages, such as permanent residency, employment or business opportunities, and the prospects for the couples’ children.
Data availability
The data was obtained through informal interviews and participant observation. However, it cannot be shared out of respect for the privacy of the participants and the sensitivity of their personal experiences.
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The collective effort of this study drew upon the diverse skills and expertize of each author. RR led the conceptualization and design of the study, conducted a series of in-depth interviews, and played a key role in the qualitative analysis. JM and RT contributed significantly to the literature review and theoretical framework and provided input during the revision process. SU and XYL ensured methodological rigor and cross-verified emergent themes. XYL provided valuable supervision throughout the research process, attended to ethical considerations, and facilitated the integration of various theoretical perspectives. RR and JM were responsible for data collection and initial analysis. All authors actively participated in the writing process, with MMS and XYL contributing significantly to the critical review and editing of the manuscript.
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Approval for conducting the research was obtained from the Department of Sociology, School of Sociology and Anthropology’s research committee during its meeting held in April 2022. The procedures used in this study adhere to the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.
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It is certified that the participants were informed about the research ethics before conducting interviews. They were assured that their participation would remain anonymous in the study and that their privacy would be protected. Verbal consent was obtained from study participants.
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Raja, R., Ma, J., Tao, R. et al. Social identity development in transnational marriages of international students in China. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11, 203 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02396-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-02396-1
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