Introduction

The integration of digital technologies has revolutionized language education, offering innovative approaches to enhance learner engagement and outcomes (Hwang et al. 2024; Zhu et al. 2024). Among these, digital game-based learning (DGBL) has emerged as a promising tool, leveraging the inherent appeal of games to create interactive and immersive learning environments (Chen 2017; Dixon 2022; Hung et al. 2018). However, despite the growing body of research supporting the efficacy of DGBL (Sandberg et al. 2011; Hung et al. 2014; Yu and Tsuei 2023), its application and impact within the specific context of Chinese EFL learners warrant closer examination.

Chinese EFL learners often face unique challenges in language acquisition (Bao and Du 2015). Traditional instructional methods, with their emphasis on rote memorization and grammar drills, can lead to decreased motivation and a sense of detachment from the language (Li and Cutting 2011; Yeung et al. 2011). Furthermore, the pressure of high-stakes English proficiency exams in China can create a performance-oriented mindset that prioritizes test scores over intrinsic enjoyment and personal growth (Cheng 2008; Guo 2013). In this context, DGBL presents a compelling pedagogical opportunity. By tapping into the intrinsically motivating elements of games, such as challenge, feedback, and rewards, DGBL can potentially spark greater engagement and foster a more positive attitude towards language learning (Hung et al. 2018; Reinders and Wattana 2015).

The theoretical underpinnings of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) further support the potential benefits of DGBL for EFL learners. SDT posits that intrinsic motivation is fostered when three basic psychological needs are met: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan and Deci 2000; Deci and Ryan 2008). DGBL environments, with their inherent elements of choice, personalized learning paths, and opportunities for social interaction, have the potential to satisfy these needs and promote a more self-determined and engaged approach to language learning (Chowdhury et al. 2024; Xu et al. 2020). In addition to intrinsic motivation, the concept of the ideal L2 self, a core component of Dörnyei’s (2009) L2 Motivational Self System, is critical in understanding language learning motivation. The ideal L2 self, representing learners’ aspirations to become proficient language users, serves as a powerful motivator (Dörnyei, 2005; Ueki and Takeuchi 2013). However, within the Chinese EFL context, where learners often prioritize extrinsic goals and face pressure to conform to societal expectations (Kang and Chang 2016), the development of a strong and positive ideal L2 self can be challenging. DGBL, through its immersive and interactive nature, can provide opportunities for learners to experience success, express themselves in the target language, and connect with a broader language-learning community (Dixon et al. 2022; Hung et al. 2018), potentially fostering a more vivid and attainable ideal L2 self.

Although existing research has extensively documented the benefits of DGBL in enhancing engagement and educational outcomes (Blume 2020; Erhel and Jamet 2013; Yu and Tsuei 2023; Zou et al. 2021), a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between enjoyment, the ideal L2 self, and the unique cultural context of Chinese EFL learners remains elusive. While a few studies have explored the impact of digital gamification on the ideal L2 self (e.g., Adolphs et al. 2018; Liu et al. 2024), they often prioritize outcomes over the dynamic process of how enjoyment and the ideal L2 self evolve and interact within a DGBL environment. Moreover, previous research has not fully addressed the specific motivational challenges faced by Chinese EFL learners, who often grapple with high-stakes testing and a focus on rote memorization (Li and Cutting 2011). To bridge these gaps, this study adopts a comprehensive mixed-methods approach, examining not only the impact of DGBL on enjoyment and the ideal L2 self but also delving into their temporal dynamics and underlying motivational mechanisms. We aim to unravel how enjoyment and the ideal L2 self evolve throughout the DGBL experience, influencing each other, and how DGBL can address the unique motivational challenges in the Chinese EFL context. By doing so, we hope to provide a more nuanced understanding of the motivational processes at play in DGBL, offering tailored insights for educators and game designers to create culturally relevant and effective language learning environments.

Specifically, our study aims to explore the following research questions:

  • How does DGBL influence the enjoyment and ideal L2 self-perception of Chinese EFL learners?

  • What is the dynamic relationship between enjoyment and the ideal L2 self during DGBL, and how do they influence each other over time?

  • How do individual differences, such as autonomy and prior gaming experience, affect learners’ enjoyment of DGBL?

  • What are the underlying motivational mechanisms through which DGBL influences enjoyment and the ideal L2 self in the context of Chinese EFL learners?

Literature Review

Theoretical framework

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) provides a comprehensive framework for understanding human motivation, particularly intrinsic motivation, by emphasizing the importance of three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan and Deci 2000; Deci and Ryan 2008). These needs are considered universal and essential for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being. Autonomy refers to the feeling of being in control of one’s own behavior and goals. When individuals experience autonomy, they perceive their actions as self-endorsed and aligned with their true interests and values. Research indicates that environments supporting autonomy enhance intrinsic motivation by allowing individuals to feel a sense of volition and personal endorsement of their activities (Ryan and Deci 2000; Van den Broeck et al. 2016). This aspect of SDT highlights the significance of providing choice and encouraging self-initiation to foster intrinsic motivation. For instance, educational settings that offer students choices in their learning activities and encourage self-directed learning have been found to significantly boost students’ intrinsic motivation and engagement (Reeve 2002).

Competence involves the sense of efficacy and mastery over tasks and challenges. It is the need to experience oneself as capable and effective in interacting with the environment. Studies have shown that when individuals feel competent, their intrinsic motivation is boosted, as they are more likely to engage in activities that they find optimally challenging and within their capabilities (Ryan and Deci 2000). Supportive environments that provide positive feedback and opportunities for skill enhancement contribute to feelings of competence. In the context of language learning, providing learners with tasks that are neither too easy nor too difficult, along with constructive feedback, can enhance their sense of competence and motivate them to continue learning (Niemiec and Ryan 2009).

Relatedness pertains to the desire to feel connected to others, to love and care, and to be loved and cared for. This need emphasizes the importance of social relationships and the sense of belongingness in enhancing motivation. SDT posits that relatedness supports intrinsic motivation by creating a secure and supportive social context where individuals feel understood and valued (Baumeister and Leary 1995; Ryan and Deci 2000). Empirical evidence suggests that fostering a sense of community and positive social interactions can significantly increase intrinsic motivation (Chen et al. 2015). In language learning environments, activities that promote collaborative learning and peer support can fulfill learners’ need for relatedness, thereby enhancing their motivation and engagement (Dörnyei and Ushioda 2011).

Together, these three needs form the foundation of SDT, explaining why individuals are driven to engage in activities out of genuine interest and personal value rather than external pressures. The theory has been widely applied across various domains, including education, work, sports, and healthcare, demonstrating its robustness in predicting optimal functioning and well-being across different contexts and cultures (Martela and Ryan 2016). In educational settings, SDT has been instrumental in developing teaching strategies that promote student autonomy, competence, and relatedness, leading to better learning outcomes and higher student satisfaction (Deci et al. 2017). In the realm of digital game-based learning, integrating SDT principles can create more engaging and motivating learning experiences by ensuring that games are designed to meet these fundamental psychological needs (Peng et al. 2012).

The relevance of SDT to DGBL is particularly significant. Games naturally lend themselves to providing autonomy through player choice and agency, competence through levels and challenges, and relatedness through multiplayer modes and social features. Research into DGBL has shown that when educational games are designed with these principles in mind, they not only enhance learning outcomes but also increase learners’ intrinsic motivation to engage with the content (Ryan et al. 2006). Therefore, understanding and applying SDT in the design and implementation of DGBL activities can be crucial for maximizing their educational effectiveness and appeal.

In summary, Self-Determination Theory offers a valuable lens through which to understand and enhance motivation in various contexts. By addressing the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, educators and game designers can create environments that foster intrinsic motivation, leading to better engagement, learning, and overall well-being. The application of SDT in digital game-based learning presents exciting opportunities for creating immersive and effective educational experiences that resonate deeply with learners’ intrinsic motivations.

DGBL and language learning motivation

Digital game-based learning (DGBL) has emerged as a powerful and transformative tool in language education, offering a dynamic alternative to traditional instructional methods (Dixon et al. 2022). By harnessing the interactive and immersive nature of digital games, DGBL creates engaging learning environments that foster active participation, knowledge construction, and skill development (Zou et al. 2021; Xu et al. 2020). Grounded in constructivist learning principles, which emphasize learners’ active role in knowledge construction through hands-on experiences and meaningful interactions (Acquah and Katz 2020; Kang and Chang 2016; Li and Tsai 2013), DGBL provides a plethora of opportunities for exploration, experimentation, and problem-solving that are crucial for language acquisition (Li and Tsai 2013; Reinhardt and Sykes 2012).

Within these immersive digital worlds, learners transition from being passive recipients of information to active agents in their learning journey (Kazu and Kuvvetli 2023). They encounter challenges, make decisions, receive feedback, and collaborate with others, all within a contextually rich and linguistically stimulating environment (Hung et al. 2014). This active engagement not only fosters a deeper understanding of language concepts but also encourages the development of essential cognitive skills such as critical thinking and problem-solving (Suh et al. 2010). Moreover, DGBL’s inherent appeal lies in its ability to transform the often arduous task of language learning into an enjoyable and intrinsically motivating experience (Prensky 2001; Yu and Tsuei 2023). The elements of fun, challenge, and reward embedded within games can spark learners’ curiosity, ignite their passion for exploration, and sustain their engagement over time (Hamari et al. 2016). By tapping into learners’ natural desire for play and mastery, DGBL has the potential to revolutionize language education and create a more effective and fulfilling learning experience for students of all ages and proficiency levels (Casañ-Pitarch, 2018).

The impact of DGBL extends beyond mere engagement, as a substantial body of research has consistently demonstrated its efficacy in improving various facets of language learning and learner motivation. It has been shown to enhance self-efficacy, a crucial belief in one’s ability to succeed, and boost overall motivation, creating a positive feedback loop that drives further engagement and learning (Dixon et al. 2022; Hung et al. 2014; Gikandi et al. 2011). The interactive and immersive nature of digital games has also been found to alleviate language anxiety and foster a sense of confidence, enabling learners to take risks and experiment with language use without the fear of judgment or failure (Reinders and Wattana 2015; Yang et al. 2023).

Beyond these affective benefits, DGBL has a tangible impact on language acquisition itself. Research indicates that learners engaging with DGBL demonstrate improvements in various linguistic competencies, including vocabulary acquisition, grammar comprehension, and communication skills (Acquah and Katz 2020; Zou et al. 2021; Dixon et al. 2022; Kazu and Kuvvetli 2023). The immediate feedback and adaptive challenges inherent in many digital games further contribute to these learning gains by providing learners with timely information about their performance and adjusting the difficulty level to maintain optimal engagement and challenge (Eltahir et al. 2021; Hamari et al. 2016). Additionally, the positive influence of DGBL extends beyond language-specific skills, encompassing broader cognitive abilities such as attentional focus and self-regulated learning strategies (Acquah and Katz, 2020; Yu and Tsuei 2023; Gikandi et al. 2011). This suggests that the benefits of DGBL can have a positive ripple effect on learners’ overall cognitive development. Meta-analyses and comprehensive reviews further solidify the evidence base for DGBL, consistently highlighting its positive impact on engagement, motivation, and linguistic competencies (Hung et al. 2018; Dixon et al. 2022). The motivational and aspirational dimensions of DGBL are particularly noteworthy. Studies have shown its potential to foster enjoyment, a key component of intrinsic motivation, and cultivate a positive ideal L2 self, an aspirational image of oneself as a proficient language user (Liu et al. 2024).

From a theoretical perspective, the positive impact of DGBL on motivation can be understood through Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Ryan and Deci 2000), which posits that intrinsic motivation is fostered by fulfilling the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. DGBL aligns with these principles by offering choices, opportunities for skill development, and social interaction, creating a fertile ground for intrinsic motivation (Hamari et al. 2016; Hung et al. 2018; Zou et al. 2021). The inherent flexibility and interactivity of digital games empower learners, fostering a sense of autonomy and ownership over their progress. The challenges and rewards within games provide opportunities for learners to experience competence and accomplishment, further fueling their motivation (Reinhardt and Sykes 2012). Additionally, social features like multiplayer modes and collaborative tasks can foster relatedness and a supportive learning community (Yu and Tsuei 2023).

Within this context, enjoyment emerges as a key facet of intrinsic motivation and a central factor in the effectiveness of DGBL (Liu et al. 2024). The immersive and interactive nature of games creates a learning environment where students are genuinely captivated by the process itself (Hamari et al. 2016; Hwang et al. 2024). As Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) Flow Theory suggests, enjoyment arises when individuals are fully absorbed in optimally challenging activities that provide opportunities for skill development. DGBL, with its adaptive challenges, immediate feedback, and progress tracking, has the potential to create such flow experiences, leading to heightened enjoyment and sustained engagement (Casañ-Pitarch 2018; Courtney and Graham 2019; Liu et al. 2024). Research consistently shows a positive correlation between enjoyment and various desirable learning outcomes in DGBL contexts, including increased engagement, willingness to communicate, and improved academic performance (Alexiou and Schippers 2018; Chen 2023; Clark et al. 2016; Fathi et al. 2024; Yeh et al. 2017).

Ideal L2 self

The concept of the ideal L2 self is a central component of Zoltán Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System (L2MSS), which integrates theories of motivation and self-identity in the context of L2 acquisition (Dörnyei 2005, 2009). The ideal L2 self refers to the aspirational image of oneself as a proficient and successful second language user. This vision acts as a powerful motivator, driving learners to engage in language learning activities with the hope of aligning their current self with this ideal future self. Dörnyei (2009) postulated that motivation in L2 learning can be significantly enhanced when learners have a clear and vivid ideal L2 self. This concept is rooted in possible selves theory, which posits that individuals are motivated by their representations of what they might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming (Markus and Nurius, 1986). The ideal L2 self is thus a desired future state that learners strive to achieve, encompassing their hopes, aspirations, and dreams related to L2 proficiency (Cho, 2020; Dörnyei 2005).

Numerous empirical studies have supported the significance of the ideal L2 self in motivating language learners (Fathi and Hejazi, 2024). For instance, Taguchi et al. (2009) conducted a cross-cultural study involving learners from Japan, China, and Iran, finding that the ideal L2 self was a strong predictor of motivated learning behavior across different cultural contexts. Similarly, Csizér and Kormos (2009) highlighted that learners with a well-defined ideal L2 self demonstrated higher levels of motivation and greater perseverance in their language learning efforts. These findings underscore the universal applicability of the ideal L2 self across diverse educational contexts. Research has also shown that the ideal L2 self can be influenced by various factors, including personal experiences, exposure to the L2 culture, and educational contexts (Al-Hoorie, 2018). Lamb (2012) found that learners who had positive intercultural experiences were more likely to develop a strong ideal L2 self, which in turn motivated them to invest more effort in learning the language. This underscores the dynamic nature of the ideal L2 self, suggesting that it can be nurtured and strengthened through targeted educational interventions and real-life interactions. Similarly, Ushioda (2011) emphasizes that the ideal L2 self is not static but evolves through continuous interactions with the learning environment and cultural exposure, further highlighting its malleability.

Understanding the role of the ideal L2 self has practical implications for language teaching (Zhang et al. 2022). Educators can enhance students’ motivation by helping them to visualize and articulate their ideal L2 selves (Fathi et al. 2024). This can be achieved through activities that encourage learners to set specific language learning goals, reflect on their future selves, and engage in visualization exercises. By creating a supportive environment that fosters the development of a strong ideal L2 self, teachers can significantly boost learners’ intrinsic motivation and long-term commitment to language learning (Dörnyei and Ushioda 2011). Techniques such as guided imagery, narrative construction, and reflective journals can be particularly effective in helping students shape and refine their ideal L2 selves (Al-Hoorie 2018; Murray et al. 2011). Several studies explore the intriguing link between technology and the ideal L2 self, highlighting the potential of digital tools to bolster motivation and shape positive self-images in language learning. Adolphs et al. (2018) investigate the use of technology to create digital representations of learners’ ideal L2 selves, suggesting that 3D animation holds promise in fostering a sense of realism and engagement. By allowing learners to visualize their desired future selves, this technology could potentially fuel motivation and guide their learning journey, making the ideal L2 self more tangible and attainable.

Lee and Lee (2021) delve deeper into the motivational aspects by examining the relationship between informal digital learning experiences (IDLE) and the ideal L2 self. Their research demonstrates that engagement with digital learning activities alongside a strong ideal L2 self-image significantly predicts enjoyment of learning a foreign language (FLE). This suggests that technology can create engaging learning environments that nourish both motivation and positive learner emotions, aligning with learners’ aspirations and enhancing their overall learning experience. Building on this notion, Liu et al. (2024) present a study that explores the impact of digital gamified language learning on the ideal L2 self. Their findings indicate that learners who engaged with gamified language learning activities exhibited a stronger ideal L2 self-image compared to those in traditional learning settings. This bolsters the argument that technology, through its interactive and engaging nature, can contribute to the development of a positive motivational outlook, thereby enhancing language learning outcomes. Kelley (2010) explores the use of social networking sites (SNS) in a Chinese EFL class. While the study primarily focuses on motivation, it touches upon the concept of the ideal L2 self by suggesting that SNS can foster a sense of community and connection, potentially leading to a stronger identification with the target language and culture. This aligns with the idea of the ideal L2 self, which often encompasses aspirations for social interaction and cultural fluency. By facilitating connections with native speakers and other learners, SNS can help students envision themselves as active participants in the target language community.

Taken together, the concept of the ideal L2 self is pivotal in understanding and enhancing motivation in language learning. Through its integration with technology and innovative educational practices, the ideal L2 self can be effectively nurtured to foster greater engagement and success in language acquisition. By providing engaging learning experiences and fostering positive self-images, technology emerges as a valuable tool for enhancing motivation and promoting success in language learning. This comprehensive understanding of the ideal L2 self offers educators actionable insights to create more motivating and effective language learning environments.

Methods

Participants

Participants were recruited from a public university in Mainland China, focusing on second-year students enrolled in the university’s EFL program. To ensure homogeneity in their foreign language background, participants had to meet the following criteria: (1) English as their primary foreign language, (2) aged between 18 and 22, (3) regular access to a computer or tablet with a reliable internet connection, and (4) no prior experience with the specific DGBL platform used in the study. This last criterion aimed to isolate the effects of the DGBL intervention itself, minimizing any influence from pre-existing familiarity with the platform.

A total of 70 learners (32 male, 38 female) were recruited through convenience sampling from two intact EFL classes with similar proficiency levels, as determined by a standardized English placement test administered at the beginning of the academic year. Recognizing the limitations of convenience sampling, this approach was chosen due to logistical constraints and the need for intact class settings.

To control for potential class-based biases, the two classes were randomly assigned to either the DGBL group (n = 35) or the control group (n = 35) using a random number generator (e.g., through a software like Microsoft Excel or a similar tool). This randomization process ensured that any observed differences in outcomes between the groups could be attributed to the intervention rather than pre-existing differences in participant characteristics.

Following the two-week intervention, a subset of 15 participants from the DGBL group was purposefully selected for semi-structured interviews. The selection criteria aimed to capture a diverse range of experiences and perspectives by considering gender, pre-test scores on the IL2SS and SDT subscales, initial English proficiency levels, and reported enjoyment levels during the intervention. The interviewed participants included 7 males and 8 females, with an average age of 19.5 years (SD = 0.8). Ten of them had prior gaming experience, while five did not. In terms of English proficiency, 4 were classified as low, 6 as medium, and 5 as high based on the placement test results. This purposive sampling approach allowed for a richer and more nuanced understanding of the impact of DGBL on learners with different characteristics and experiences.

Efforts were made to maintain demographic balance within the sample, considering gender and other relevant factors. Additionally, the study was conducted following ethical guidelines, with approval from the university’s Institutional Review Board (IRB). Informed consent was obtained from all participants, ensuring they were aware of the study’s purpose, procedures, and their right to withdraw at any time without penalty.

Materials and instruments

Pre-test and post-test questionnaires

To assess participants’ ideal L2 self and intrinsic motivation, pre-test and post-test questionnaires were administered. The study employed the Ideal L2 Self scale developed by Papi and Abdollahzadeh (2012) to gauge the EFL participants’ aspirations for their future selves as proficient English users. This eight-item scale measures learners’ self-perceptions regarding their ideal future use of English. Participants responded on a six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 6 (Strongly Agree). This instrument demonstrated strong internal consistency in this study, with a Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of α = 0.84.

To assess motivational orientations, the Self-Determination Theory in Second Language (SDT-L2) scale by Alamer (2021) was used. This 20-item instrument explores four key motivational constructs: intrinsic regulation, identified regulation, introjected regulation, and external regulation. Each construct is measured by a five-item subscale, using a five-point Likert scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” Participants considered the prompt “Why Are You Learning English?” before responding.

The materials and instruments used in this study were carefully selected to measure participants’ ideal L2 self and intrinsic motivation accurately. To this end, pre-test and post-test questionnaires were administered. The Ideal L2 Self scale, originally developed by Papi and Abdollahzadeh (2012), was utilized to evaluate the EFL participants’ aspirations regarding their future selves as proficient English users. This eight-item scale, which captures learners’ self-perceptions about their envisioned future use of English, required participants to respond on a six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 6 (Strongly Agree). In this study, the scale demonstrated strong internal consistency, as evidenced by a Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of α = 0.84.

In addition to assessing the ideal L2 self, the study explored motivational orientations using the Self-Determination Theory in Second Language (SDT-L2) scale developed by Alamer (2021). This 20-item instrument was designed to measure four key motivational constructs: intrinsic regulation, identified regulation, introjected regulation, and external regulation. Each construct was assessed through a five-item subscale, with participants indicating their agreement on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” The prompt “Why Are You Learning English?” served as a guide for participants as they completed the scale. The reliability of the SDT-L2 scale in this study was confirmed through satisfactory Cronbach’s Alpha coefficients for each subscale: intrinsic regulation (α = 0.88), identified regulation (α = 0.85), introjected regulation (α = 0.81), and external regulation (α = 0.79). These values indicate a solid internal consistency across all subscales, reinforcing the reliability of the SDT-L2 scale within this study.

Recognizing the importance of context-specific validation, and in response to the reviewer’s concerns about the potential impact of a different research context on the reliability of these instruments, additional steps were taken to ensure their suitability for the specific sample of Chinese EFL learners. Before conducting the main study, a pilot study was carried out with a small group of participants (n = 20) who shared similar demographics and language proficiency levels with the target population. The pilot study results demonstrated good internal consistency for both the Ideal L2 Self scale (α = 0.84) and the SDT-L2 scale (α = 0.87), thereby supporting the reliability of these instruments in the context of this research.

Digital game-based learning platform: Duolingo

Duolingo, a widely recognized language learning platform, employs a gamified approach to enhance learner engagement and motivation, offering a diverse array of interactive exercises designed to foster language acquisition through practice and reinforcement. Its pedagogical approach, rooted in principles of spaced repetition and immediate feedback, aims to optimize learning and retention, while its adaptive learning algorithm tailors content and difficulty to each learner’s progress, ensuring an optimally challenging and personalized experience. In this study, we specifically leveraged Duolingo features aligned with SDT and our focus on enjoyment and ideal L2 self-perception. These included vocabulary practice presented in context through thematic word sets, grammar exercises targeting specific rules and structures, listening comprehension tasks involving short audio clips and dialogues, and interactive quizzes providing immediate feedback. Additionally, Duolingo’s progress tracking and reward system fostered a sense of accomplishment, while social features like leaderboards and leagues promoted a sense of community and relatedness. These elements collectively support the three basic psychological needs of autonomy (through learner choice and pacing), competence (through adaptive challenges and feedback), and relatedness (through social interaction opportunities), creating an intrinsically motivating environment conducive to language learning.

Figure 1 illustrates examples of these exercises, showcasing the variety of tasks learners engage with, such as translating sentences, selecting images that match spoken words, filling in the blanks, and responding to prompts through speech. These tasks support the development of language skills in an engaging and interactive manner, contributing to the platform’s overall effectiveness in creating an intrinsically motivating learning environment.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Examples of Duolingo exercises illustrating the platform’s interactive and adaptive approach to language learning.

Full size image

Experience Sampling Method (ESM)

To capture fluctuations in enjoyment during the DGBL activities, a smartphone application employing the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) was utilized (Hektner et al. 2007). Participants received the app at the study’s outset and responded to prompts four times daily over a two-week period. Each prompt included a 7-point Likert scale for enjoyment rating, from “not at all enjoyable” (1) to “extremely enjoyable” (7). An open-ended question followed, asking participants to describe their current activity and associated feelings. This method provided real-time data on enjoyment levels and contextual insights.

Semi-structured interviews with stimulated recall

After the intervention, semi-structured interviews using a stimulated recall approach were conducted with a subset of participants from DGBL group (n = 15). Participants were shown screenshots from their DGBL gameplay (DGBL group) to aid recall of specific experiences. The interviews focused on participants’ enjoyment, perceived learning gains, and changes in their ideal L2 self perception. These interviews provided rich qualitative data, enhancing understanding of participants’ subjective experiences and evolving self-concepts as language learners. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using thematic analysis to ensure reliability and validity of the qualitative data.

Procedure

The research commenced with the administration of pre-test questionnaires during participants’ regular EFL class time. All /participants, regardless of group assignment to the DGBL group or the control group, completed the IL2SS and the SDT Questionnaire in a paper-and-pencil format. To minimize bias, the classroom instructor, who remained unaware of group assignments, provided clear instructions and ensured a standardized testing environment.

Following the pre-test measures, the two-week intervention phase began. Both groups continued to meet for their regular EFL classes, adhering to a consistent schedule of three 60 min sessions per week. To maintain parity in overall instructional exposure and minimize potential teacher bias, the classroom instructor remained blind to group assignments throughout the study.

The control group’s curriculum remained unchanged, following the established pedagogical framework for EFL instruction as outlined in the university’s EFL program curriculum guide. Participants engaged with a designated EFL coursebook through tasks and drills targeting grammar practice, vocabulary building, reading comprehension, and writing development. The instructor delivered targeted lectures on specific grammatical concepts, pronunciation features, and cultural aspects related to the week’s learning objectives, providing a foundation before practice activities. Additionally, interactive discussions facilitated by the instructor encouraged participants to practice spoken English and engage with learning materials in a social setting, fostering critical thinking and application of learned concepts.

In contrast to the control group, the DGBL group engaged in digital game-based language learning activities using the Duolingo platform. These activities were thoughtfully integrated into each 60-min class session for approximately 30 min, striking a balance between traditional instruction and DGBL. During this dedicated DGBL time, participants worked on a variety of interactive exercises tailored to their individual proficiency levels. These included vocabulary practice through thematic word sets, matching exercises, and translations; grammar exercises focused on specific structures, such as verb tenses and prepositions, through sentence construction, error identification, and translation tasks; listening comprehension activities involving short dialogues or passages and comprehension questions; and interactive quizzes to consolidate learning and provide immediate feedback. To further reinforce in-class learning and maximize language exposure, students were encouraged to use Duolingo for an additional 10–15 min daily outside of class.

The classroom instructor played a pivotal role in facilitating this process, offering initial guidance, monitoring progress through Duolingo’s teacher dashboard, and providing personalized feedback to address any difficulties. Importantly, Duolingo activities were carefully aligned with the weekly learning objectives of the EFL course, ensuring complementarity with the traditional curriculum. For instance, vocabulary modules corresponded with the coursebook’s weekly themes, grammar exercises reinforced lecture content, and listening tasks integrated culturally relevant topics, ensuring the DGBL intervention provided targeted and meaningful language practice in support of the course’s overall learning goals.

To capture in-the-moment enjoyment fluctuations within the DGBL group, a smartphone application using the ESM was utilized during the two-week intervention. Participants downloaded the app onto their personal smartphones at the study’s outset. During an orientation session, the researcher provided instructions on using the app and responding to prompts. ESM prompts were delivered four times daily at random intervals outside class time, minimizing classroom disruption. Each notification prompted participants to complete a brief survey, including a 7-point Likert scale for enjoyment and an open-ended question about their current activity and feelings. This method provided real-time data on enjoyment levels and contextual insights.

Upon completion of the two-week intervention, all participants completed the post-test questionnaires (IL2SS and SDT) following the same procedures as the pre-test, allowing for assessment of changes in ideal L2 self-perception and intrinsic motivation. Following the post-test, a subset of participants was selected for individual, semi-structured interviews using purposive sampling. The selection aimed for balanced representation within each group, considering factors such as gender, pre-test scores, and initial English proficiency. Interviews were scheduled at convenient times and locations outside class hours. The researcher, trained in stimulated recall interviews, used a standardized guide focusing on participants’ enjoyment, perceived learning gains, and changes in their ideal L2 self-image. Interviews were audio-recorded with consent and transcribed for qualitative analysis.

The study adhered to ethical guidelines, with approval from the university’s Institutional Review Board (IRB). Participants provided informed consent, ensuring they were aware of the study’s purpose, procedures, and their right to withdraw at any time without penalty.

Data analysis

The study employed a mixed-methods approach (Johnson et al. 2007) to gain a comprehensive understanding of the interplay between enjoyment, ideal L2 self-perception, and the DGBL intervention, utilizing both quantitative and qualitative data analysis techniques. Quantitative analysis involved paired-samples t-tests to assess within-group changes from pre-test to post-test in the DGBL and control groups on measures of ideal L2 self-image, intrinsic motivation (including autonomy, competence, and relatedness), and enjoyment, with Cohen’s d calculated to quantify effect sizes. Furthermore, one-way ANCOVAs were performed to compare post-test scores between the groups on these measures, controlling for pre-test scores, with partial eta-squared serving as the effect size measure. Additionally, a multilevel modeling (MLM) analysis with a random intercepts model (Raudenbush and Bryk 2002) was employed to delve into how enjoyment fluctuations, as reported through ESM data during gameplay, were associated with individual learner characteristics within the DGBL group.

Qualitative data from the stimulated recall interviews were analyzed using a constant-comparative approach (Corbin and Strauss 2015). This involved a cyclical process of coding interview transcripts, identifying emergent themes, refining themes based on new data, and constructing a narrative capturing participants’ subjective experiences. Thematic analysis focused on patterns related to enjoyment during DGBL activities, perceived learning gains, and changes in ideal L2 self-image. To ensure the reliability of the coding process, two independent coders were involved in the analysis of the interview transcripts. Both coders underwent training to familiarize themselves with the coding framework and thematic categories. The inter-coder reliability was assessed using Cohen’s Kappa coefficient, which measures the agreement between coders beyond chance. The initial coding yielded a Cohen’s Kappa of 0.82, indicating strong agreement between the coders (Landis and Koch 1977).

Discrepancies in coding were resolved through discussion and consensus, ensuring a consistent and rigorous approach to the analysis. Regular meetings were held to review the coding process, refine the coding scheme, and address any emerging issues. This iterative process not only enhanced the reliability of the coding but also ensured a thorough and nuanced understanding of the qualitative data. The high level of inter-coder reliability underscores the robustness of the thematic analysis and the credibility of the findings derived from the qualitative data.

Results

This section presents the findings of the study, employing a mixed-methods approach to explore the impact of a digital game-based language learning platform (DGBL) on enjoyment, ideal L2 self-perception, and intrinsic motivation among Chinese EFL learners.

Quantitative Results

Descriptive Statistics

The descriptive statistics for pre-test and post-test scores on the Ideal L2 Self Scale (IL2SS) and the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) subscales (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) for both the DGBL group (n = 35) and the control group (n = 35) are detailed in Table 1. The mean scores and standard deviations (SD) for both groups across all variables at pre-test and post-test indicate comparable levels of ideal L2 self-perception and intrinsic motivation at baseline. An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the pre-test scores between the DGBL and control groups. The results confirmed no statistically significant differences between the groups on any of the pre-test measures (all p-values > 0.05), which supports baseline equivalence on key study variables.

Table 1 Descriptive Statistics for Pre-test and Post-test Measures.
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The inclusion of the group comparison column in Table 1, showing the results of the independent samples t-test at pre-test, further emphasizes the baseline equivalence between the DGBL and control groups. The non-significant t-values and p-values across all pre-test measures suggest that any observed differences in post-test outcomes can be more confidently attributed to the interventions rather than pre-existing differences between the groups. By clarifying that higher scores on the IL2SS and SDT subscales reflect more positive outcomes and specifying the range of the ESM enjoyment ratings, the table provides a clearer understanding of the data’s context and implications.

Within-group changes from pre-test to post-test

Paired-samples t-tests were conducted to examine changes from pre-test to post-test within each group for all variables. The results, along with the effect sizes (Cohen’s d) to quantify the magnitude of the observed changes, are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 Within-Group Changes from Pre-test to Post-test.
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The results from the paired-samples t-tests indicate that the DGBL group experienced significant improvements in enjoyment (t(34) = −7.84, p < 0.001, d = 0.78) and ideal L2 self-perception (t(34) = −2.63, p = 0.011, d = 0.27). The control group also showed a significant improvement in enjoyment (t(34) = −2.10, p = 0.042, d = 0.24), though the effect size was smaller compared to the DGBL group. No significant changes were observed in autonomy, competence, or relatedness for either group. This suggests that the DGBL intervention primarily impacted enjoyment and ideal L2 self-perception. The significant increase in enjoyment in both groups, though more pronounced in the DGBL group, highlights the potential benefits of incorporating digital game-based activities in language learning to enhance learner engagement and motivation. The moderate effect sizes observed in the DGBL group’s ideal L2 self-perception indicate a meaningful, albeit modest, positive influence on learners’ self-concept as proficient language users.

Between-group comparisons of post-test scores (ANCOVA)

To further investigate the differences between the groups, one-way ANCOVAs were conducted for each variable, with pre-test scores as covariates. This analysis helps to control for initial differences and provides a clearer picture of the intervention’s effectiveness. The results are presented in Tables 3 and 4, along with effect sizes (partial eta squared).

Table 3 Between-Group Comparisons of Post-test Scores (ANCOVA).
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Table 4 Multilevel Model Predicting Enjoyment in the DGBL Group.
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The ANCOVA results reveal that the DGBL group significantly outperformed the control group in terms of enjoyment (F(1, 67) = 16.34, p < 0.001, η² = 0.20) and ideal L2 self-perception (F(1, 67) = 5.20, p = 0.025, η² = 0.08) at post-test, even after controlling for pre-test scores. The effect size for enjoyment (η² = 0.20) indicates a large effect, suggesting that the DGBL intervention had a substantial impact on increasing learners’ enjoyment. Similarly, the effect size for ideal L2 self-perception (η² = 0.08) indicates a moderate effect, highlighting the positive influence of DGBL on learners’ aspirational self-image as proficient language users.

While the control group showed slight improvements in some variables, these changes were more pronounced in the DGBL group. There were no significant differences between the groups in terms of autonomy, competence, or relatedness, suggesting that the primary benefits of the DGBL intervention were in enhancing enjoyment and ideal L2 self-perception. These findings underscore the potential of digital game-based learning to create more engaging and motivating language learning environments, particularly in enhancing learners’ enjoyment and their vision of themselves as successful language users.

Multilevel model predicting enjoyment in the DGBL group

A multilevel modeling (MLM) analysis with a random intercepts model was conducted to explore how enjoyment fluctuates over time within individuals in the DGBL group. Enjoyment ratings collected through the experience sampling method (ESM) served as the dependent variable. These ratings were nested within individual participants (Level 1) and measured at four time points (Day 1, Day 4, Day 7, Day 10) across the two-week intervention period (Level 2). Pre-test scores on the IL2SS and the SDT subscales (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) were included as independent variables at Level 1 to examine their influence on enjoyment ratings.

The MLM analysis revealed significant fixed effects for pre-test Ideal L2 Self-perception (B = 0.12, SE = 0.04, p = 0.003) and pre-test Autonomy (B = 0.10, SE = 0.03, p = 0.001). This indicates that learners with higher levels of ideal L2 self-perception and autonomy at baseline experienced greater enjoyment during gameplay activities. The significant random effect at Level 2 (variance in enjoyment ratings across participants) suggests that notable individual differences in enjoyment were present, even after accounting for pre-test characteristics.

These findings highlight the potential interplay between pre-existing learner characteristics and the effectiveness of the DGBL intervention. Learners with a more positive self-image as L2 learners and a stronger preference for self-directed learning experiences might benefit more from the engagement and autonomy offered by the digital game platform. The significant random effect at Level 2 underscores the importance of considering individual variability in enjoyment, suggesting that other unmeasured factors may contribute to enjoyment fluctuations.

Qualitative results

Following the quantitative analysis, a thematic analysis using a constant-comparative approach (Corbin and Strauss 2015) was conducted to explore the in-depth experiences of a subset of participants (n = 15) from the DGBL group. Semi-structured stimulated recall interviews were employed, prompting participants to reflect on their interactions with the DGBL platform and its impact on their learning. Thematic analysis involved iterative coding and cross-comparison of interview transcripts to identify recurring patterns and central themes within the participants’ narratives.

Engagement and enjoyment

The overwhelming sentiment expressed by the participants was one of heightened engagement and enjoyment while using the DGBL platform. They found the game-based activities to be intrinsically motivating, sparking a genuine interest in language learning.

Participant 3 (Female, High Proficiency) enthusiastically shared, “The games were so much fun! I actually looked forward to practicing my English, which is something I never thought I’d say.” This suggests that the DGBL platform successfully transformed the often-dreaded language learning process into an enjoyable experience, even for high-proficiency learners who might find traditional methods less stimulating. For Participant 9 (Male, Medium Proficiency), the DGBL platform blurred the lines between learning and leisure. He remarked, “It didn’t feel like studying at all. It was more like playing a game, but I was learning so much without even realizing it.” This highlights the platform’s ability to create a seamless and immersive learning environment where the acquisition of knowledge feels natural and effortless.

Even learners with lower proficiency levels, who might typically struggle with motivation, found the DGBL platform to be engaging. Participant 15 (Female, Low Proficiency) shared, “I used to dread vocabulary drills, but the games made it feel like a challenge, like I was unlocking new levels.” This gamified approach, with its emphasis on progress and achievement, seems to have successfully tapped into learners’ intrinsic motivation, even those who might otherwise find language learning daunting.

The recurring contrast between the DGBL experience and traditional learning methods underscores the platform’s potential to cultivate a more positive and sustainable approach to language acquisition. The element of fun and the sense of accomplishment associated with game-based activities appear to have fostered a sense of intrinsic motivation, encouraging learners to actively participate in their language learning process.

Perceived learning gains

Beyond enjoyment, participants also reported tangible improvements in their English language skills. They attributed these gains to the platform’s focus on practical and contextually relevant language learning. Participant 6 (Male, Medium Proficiency) highlighted the effectiveness of vocabulary acquisition within the DGBL environment, stating, “I definitely learned a lot of new words, especially ones I could actually use in conversations. The games made it easy to remember them because they were connected to the stories and situations.” This suggests that the contextualized presentation of vocabulary within the game narratives enhanced retention and facilitated the application of newly learned words in real-life scenarios.

The DGBL platform also proved beneficial for learners grappling with grammar concepts. Participant 13 (Female, Low Proficiency) explained, “I struggled with grammar before, but the platform broke it down into smaller, more manageable chunks. The exercises were fun, and I felt like I was finally getting it.” This suggests that the platform’s interactive and scaffolded approach to grammar instruction helped learners overcome their difficulties and develop a stronger grasp of grammatical rules. Furthermore, the DGBL platform seems to have fostered improvements in receptive skills. Participant 2 (Male, High Proficiency) expressed surprise at his progress, stating, “I was surprised by how much my listening and reading comprehension improved. The games forced me to pay attention and understand the language in context.” This indicates that the platform’s interactive and dynamic nature encouraged active engagement with the language, leading to enhanced comprehension skills.

Overall, the perceived learning gains reported by participants suggest that the DGBL platform effectively facilitated language acquisition across various skill areas. The emphasis on practical application and contextualized learning appears to have resonated with learners, contributing to a sense of tangible progress and mastery.

Autonomy and self-directed learning

A key aspect of the DGBL experience that participants valued was the sense of autonomy and control it afforded them over their learning process. The platform’s flexibility and personalized features allowed learners to tailor their learning journey according to their individual needs and preferences.

Participant 5 (Female, Medium Proficiency) appreciated the freedom of choice, stating, “I loved being able to choose which skills I wanted to practice. It felt like I was in control of my learning, not just following a textbook.” This suggests that the platform’s self-directed learning approach empowered learners to take ownership of their language development. The ability to learn at one’s own pace was also highly valued. Participant 10 (Male, High Proficiency) commented, “The platform let me go at my own pace. I could spend more time on things I found difficult and move quickly through things I already knew.” This adaptability caters to diverse learning styles, ensuring that learners are neither overwhelmed nor bored, which can be crucial for maintaining motivation.

For busy students like Participant 1 (Female, Low Proficiency), the platform’s accessibility was a major advantage. She stated, “I’m a busy student, so being able to practice whenever I had a few minutes was great. It made learning English fit into my life.” This flexibility allows learners to integrate language practice into their daily routines, promoting consistency and long-term engagement.

The sense of autonomy and personalized learning fostered by the DGBL platform aligns with the principles of Self-Determination Theory, which emphasizes the importance of autonomy in enhancing intrinsic motivation. By providing learners with choices and control over their learning process, the platform seems to have created a more empowering and motivating environment.

Challenges and suggestions for improvement

While the overall feedback was positive, participants also offered valuable suggestions for further enhancing the DGBL platform.

The desire for increased challenge and variety was a recurring theme. Participant 7 (Male, Medium Proficiency) suggested, “Some of the games got a bit repetitive after a while. It would be cool if there were more variety or even the option to create your own challenges.” This feedback indicates that while the initial gamified approach is engaging, maintaining long-term motivation might require ongoing updates and additions to the platform’s content and features.

Another area for improvement identified by participants was the limited focus on spoken English practice. Participant 12 (Female, High Proficiency) expressed, “I wish there was more opportunity to practice speaking. Maybe they could add voice recognition or something like that.” This highlights the need for a more balanced approach that incorporates productive skills alongside receptive ones, catering to the diverse needs of language learners. Finally, some participants pointed out occasional issues with clarity and guidance within the platform. Participant 14 (Male, Low Proficiency) mentioned, “Sometimes the instructions weren’t very clear, and I had to guess what to do.” This feedback underscores the importance of user-friendly design and intuitive navigation, particularly for learners who might be less familiar with digital game-based learning environments.

These constructive suggestions highlight the importance of continuous improvement and user-centered design in the development of DGBL platforms. By actively incorporating learner feedback, developers can ensure that the platform remains relevant, engaging, and effective in meeting the evolving needs of language learners

Discussion

This study explored the impact of DGBL on enjoyment and the ideal L2 self among Chinese EFL learners. Employing a mixed-methods approach, this research provides a nuanced understanding of how DGBL activities influence learners’ immediate experiences and evolving self-concept as language learners. The discussion integrates our findings with existing literature, highlighting the implications of SDT and the ideal L2 self in the context of DGBL.

The significant increase in enjoyment and ideal L2 self within the DGBL group, as evidenced by the paired-samples t-tests, underscores the potential of digital games in enhancing learner motivation (Adolphs et al. 2018; Erhel and Jamet 2013; Liu et al. 2024). However, it is crucial to note that the ANCOVA results provide even stronger evidence for the positive impact of DGBL. The ANCOVA analysis revealed that the DGBL group exhibited significantly higher post-test scores on both enjoyment and ideal L2 self compared to the control group, even after controlling for pre-test scores. This finding reinforces the notion that the observed improvements were not merely due to chance or pre-existing differences between the groups but can be more confidently attributed to the DGBL intervention itself. Our findings align with the principles of SDT, which emphasize the importance of fulfilling autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs to foster intrinsic motivation (Ryan and Deci 2000; Deci and Ryan 2008). The autonomy provided by DGBL, through choices and self-directed learning paths, likely contributed to the increased enjoyment observed. This aligns with Reeve (2002), who found that environments supporting autonomy significantly boost intrinsic motivation. By allowing learners to make decisions about their learning activities and paths, DGBL empowers them to take ownership of their educational process, thus enhancing their intrinsic motivation (Chen and Tu, 2021; Yu and Tsuei, 2023).

The competence aspect of SDT is also relevant here. The significant increase in ideal L2 self-perception suggests that learners felt more competent and capable in their language learning journey after engaging with DGBL. As Ryan and Deci (2000) posited, a sense of efficacy and mastery over tasks enhances intrinsic motivation. The interactive and adaptive nature of digital games, which provide immediate feedback and appropriately challenging tasks, likely played a crucial role in this perceived competence. This is consistent with the findings of Niemiec and Ryan (2009), who emphasized the importance of supportive environments that provide positive feedback and skill enhancement opportunities. The games’ ability to adjust difficulty levels according to learners’ progress ensures that tasks remain optimally challenging, fostering a sense of accomplishment and competence (Chiu et al. 2012; Chowdhury et al. 2024; Hung et al. 2014).

However, while the DGBL intervention positively impacted enjoyment and ideal L2 self-perception, it is noteworthy that we did not observe significant changes in the SDT subscales of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. This could be attributed to several factors. First, the relatively short two-week intervention period might not have been sufficient to induce substantial changes in these more deeply ingrained motivational orientations. Second, the self-report nature of the SDT-L2 scale might have limited its sensitivity to detect subtle shifts in these constructs. Additionally, the specific design and implementation of the DGBL activities might have inadvertently emphasized certain aspects of SDT (e.g., competence through achieving in-game goals) while not fully addressing others (e.g., autonomy through providing more open-ended choices). Future research could employ longer intervention periods, utilize a combination of self-report and observational measures, and explore a wider range of DGBL activities to gain a more comprehensive understanding of how DGBL influences different facets of intrinsic motivation.

The relatedness need, which involves feeling connected to others, was fulfilled through the social and collaborative elements of the DGBL activities. Participants’ enjoyment and engagement were enhanced by the sense of community and interaction with peers, echoing the findings of Chen et al. (2015) and Dörnyei and Ushioda (2011), who highlighted the role of social relationships in enhancing motivation. The qualitative data further supported this, with participants expressing appreciation for the collaborative nature of the games, which helped them feel more connected and supported. The social features of DGBL, such as multiplayer modes and team-based challenges, likely contributed to this sense of relatedness by promoting peer interaction and cooperation (Berns et al. 2016; Xu et al. 2020; Yeh et al. 2017). These interactive elements not only fostered a supportive learning environment but also encouraged learners to engage more deeply with the language tasks, thereby enhancing their overall motivation and enjoyment (Dixon et al. 2022; Hwang et al. 2024).

Furthermore, the findings are supported by studies that show DGBL’s positive impact on reducing language anxiety and boosting confidence, which are critical for language acquisition. Reinders and Wattana (2015) demonstrated that DGBL could alleviate anxiety, making students more receptive to using the target language (Hung et al. 2014; Yang et al. 2023). This reduction in anxiety likely contributed to the increased enjoyment and motivation observed in our study (Eltahir et al. 2021; Hwang et al. 2024). Additionally, the hybrid game-based apps combining individual and collaborative tasks, as explored by Berns et al. (2016), enhance learner engagement and perceived usefulness, leading to better learning outcomes. The collaborative tasks not only improved language skills but also built a sense of community among learners, reinforcing the relatedness need highlighted by SDT. The integration of various reward mechanisms within the games also played a significant role in sustaining learners’ motivation. Yu and Tsuei (2023) explored the impact of different reward mechanisms in DGBL, finding that both performance-contingent and completion-contingent rewards effectively motivate students. These rewards help maintain attention and effort, as well as foster emotional engagement and self-efficacy, thereby contributing to the overall increase in enjoyment and ideal L2 self. The dual approach to rewards ensures that learners remain motivated throughout the learning process, addressing both their need for competence and their intrinsic desire for mastery (Reinhardt and Sykes 2012; Tsai and Tsai 2018).

The multilevel modeling analysis further revealed that learners with higher pre-test levels of ideal L2 self and autonomy tended to experience greater enjoyment during DGBL activities. This suggests that a strong aspirational image of oneself as a proficient language user, coupled with a preference for self-directed learning, can significantly enhance learners’ engagement and enjoyment within a DGBL environment. As Dörnyei (2009) posited, the ideal L2 self serves as a powerful motivational driver, and our findings indicate that DGBL can provide a fertile ground for cultivating and reinforcing this positive self-concept. The predictive value of autonomy on enjoyment aligns with SDT, which emphasizes the importance of autonomy in fostering intrinsic motivation (Ryan and Deci 2000). DGBL, with its inherent flexibility and choice, allows learners to feel a sense of control over their learning process, making their educational experiences more personally relevant and satisfying (Eckes et al. 2018; Yeh et al. 2017). In addition to these pre-existing learner characteristics, the significant random effect at Level 2 in our MLM analysis underscores the presence of notable individual differences in enjoyment. This suggests that other factors beyond those measured in this study also play a role in shaping learners’ experiences with DGBL. For instance, prior gaming experience might influence how learners interact with and perceive the DGBL platform. Learners with previous exposure to digital games may possess a higher initial comfort level and skill set that allows them to engage more fully and enjoyably with the activities (Berns et al. 2016; Casañ-Pitarch 2018; Courtney and Graham 2019). Conversely, those with limited gaming experience might initially struggle with the interface and gameplay, potentially impacting their enjoyment (Whitton 2009).

Moreover, personal interests and preferences can significantly affect learners’ engagement with DGBL. Games that align with learners’ interests are likely to be more engaging and enjoyable (Hwang et al. 2024; Yeh et al. 2017), highlighting the importance of incorporating a variety of themes and genres in educational games to cater to diverse learner preferences. Finally, the social aspect of gaming can also contribute to individual differences in enjoyment (Bouvier et al. 2014). Learners who value social interaction may find multiplayer games more engaging, as they provide opportunities for collaboration and competition with peers, thereby fulfilling the need for relatedness (Ryan et al. 2006; Siitonen 2007). On the other hand, those who prefer solitary activities might derive more enjoyment from single-player games that allow for focused, independent learning. These findings collectively highlight the importance of recognizing and catering to learner variability in the design and implementation of DGBL interventions (Acquah and Katz 2020; Hung et al. 2018). By providing personalized and adaptive learning paths that consider learners’ skills, preferences, and motivational profiles, educators and game designers can create more effective and enjoyable language learning experiences (Stiller and Schworm 2019; Hung et al. 2014; Liu et al. 2024).

The qualitative findings enrich and expand upon the quantitative results, providing a deeper understanding of the mechanisms through which DGBL influences enjoyment, the ideal L2 self, and language learning motivation. The dominant themes of engagement and enjoyment in the interviews directly echo the significant increase in enjoyment scores observed in the DGBL group (Table 2). Participants’ enthusiastic descriptions of the game-based activities as “fun” and “motivating” align with the findings of Berns et al. (2016), who demonstrated that hybrid game-based apps enhance learner engagement and perceived usefulness. The contrast between the enjoyable DGBL experience and the perceived tedium of traditional methods further underscores the platform’s potential to cultivate a more positive and sustainable approach to language acquisition. Moreover, the perceived learning gains reported by participants, particularly in vocabulary, grammar, and comprehension skills, resonate with the quantitative increase in ideal L2 self-perception, suggesting that tangible progress fosters a stronger self-image as capable language learners (Dörnyei 2005; Chen and Tu 2021; Liu et al. 2024).

The ability to connect language learning with real-world contexts through interactive games likely contributes to deeper and more lasting language acquisition (Chen 2023; Dixon et al. 2022; Hung et al. 2014; Kao 2020; Kazu and Kuvvetli 2023). The theme of autonomy and self-directed learning further highlights the platform’s alignment with SDT principles (Ryan and Deci 2000), as participants valued the flexibility to choose activities and learn at their own pace, empowering them to take control of their learning journeys.

The qualitative and quantitative findings converge to illustrate a powerful connection between engagement, perceived learning gains, and autonomy, all contributing to the observed increases in enjoyment and the ideal L2 self. Enhanced enjoyment, linked to intrinsic motivation, fostered a more positive learning experience, while the perceived progress bolstered learners’ confidence and aspirational self-image. The qualitative data also shed light on individual differences in enjoyment, suggesting that factors such as prior gaming experience and the desire for varied challenges play a role alongside pre-test autonomy and ideal L2 self.

Conclusion

This study has provided significant insights into the impact of DGBLon enjoyment and the ideal L2 self among Chinese EFL learners. By leveraging a mixed-methods approach, we have demonstrated that DGBL activities can significantly enhance learners’ intrinsic motivation and their aspirational self-images as proficient language users. The quantitative findings revealed notable improvements in both enjoyment and ideal L2 self-perception following the DGBL intervention. Multilevel modeling further underscored the importance of individual differences, such as autonomy and prior gaming experience, in predicting enjoyment during DGBL activities. Qualitative data from semi-structured interviews enriched our understanding by highlighting the positive influence of DGBL on engagement, perceived learning gains, and the fulfillment of psychological needs as outlined by SDT.

Our findings align with the principles of SDT, confirming that environments which support autonomy, competence, and relatedness significantly enhance intrinsic motivation. The autonomy provided by DGBL, through choices and self-directed learning paths, contributed to the increased enjoyment observed. Similarly, the interactive nature of digital games, offering immediate feedback and appropriately challenging tasks, bolstered learners’ sense of competence. The social and collaborative elements of the games fostered a sense of relatedness, enhancing engagement and motivation. This comprehensive analysis underscores the potential of DGBL to create a more engaging and effective language learning environment, particularly for EFL learners.

Implications

This study contributes to the theoretical understanding of motivation in language learning by integrating the constructs of SDT and the ideal L2 self within the context of DGBL. The significant increase in enjoyment and ideal L2 self-perception observed in this study supports the applicability of SDT in digital learning environments, emphasizing the need to address learners’ psychological needs to enhance intrinsic motivation. Additionally, the study extends the L2 Motivational Self System by demonstrating how DGBL can effectively nurture the ideal L2 self, thereby driving learners’ engagement and persistence in language learning. These theoretical insights highlight the importance of designing digital learning tools that cater to autonomy, competence, and relatedness to foster a motivationally supportive environment.

From a practical standpoint, the findings of this study offer several actionable recommendations for educators and instructional designers. Firstly, integrating DGBL into language curricula can significantly boost learners’ enjoyment and motivation. Educators should consider incorporating games that provide choices, adapt to learners’ skill levels, and include social interaction features to meet the diverse needs of students. Professional development programs should be established to familiarize educators with the effective use of DGBL, addressing potential resistance and enhancing their ability to integrate these tools seamlessly into their teaching practices.

Furthermore, the study’s insights into individual differences suggest that personalized learning paths within DGBL platforms can enhance engagement. Tailoring game content to match learners’ proficiency levels and interests can help maintain optimal challenge and motivation. Educators should also encourage learners to set specific language learning goals and reflect on their progress, helping them visualize and strive towards their ideal L2 self. By fostering a supportive and engaging learning environment, educators can leverage the full potential of DGBL to improve language acquisition outcomes.

Limitations

While this study provides valuable insights into the impact of DGBL on language learning motivation, it is not without limitations. Firstly, the sample size of 70 participants, though adequate for initial exploratory analysis, limits the generalizability of the findings. Future research should involve larger and more diverse samples to validate and extend these results. Secondly, the study was conducted over a relatively short intervention period of two weeks. Longer-term studies are needed to examine the sustained impact of DGBL on motivation and language proficiency. Additionally, while the study controlled for prior gaming experience, it did not account for other individual differences such as learning styles or cultural factors that might influence the effectiveness of DGBL. Future research should explore these variables to provide a more comprehensive understanding of how DGBL can be optimized for different learner profiles. Lastly, the reliance on self-reported measures for enjoyment and ideal L2 self-perception may introduce response biases. Combining these with objective measures, such as language proficiency tests and observational data, could provide a more robust assessment of DGBL’s impact.