Table 1 Description of each co-production element in the Context centred 4 P’s knowledge co-production framework (Fig. 1).

The scope, context, operating space, research or intervention setting of the project. Many frameworks are available to assist characterising this, but each provides a limited lens so need to be considered carefully. Inclusion of knowledge systems and temporal and scalar aspects is useful to open participants view of the system, as is a framework that is not too narrowly prescriptive.

(Fazey et al. 2018, Ostrom, 2009, Leith et al. 2014, Gorddard et al. 2016)

Refers to the multi-layered characteristics (social + researcher identities) that make up individuals and teams and require an awareness of how they and others see themselves in relation to others.

Include:

• Individual researcher identity (i.e. social demographic factors, onto-epistemological & values)

• Project team collective and strategic (organisational) positioning

• (for later on) researcher role/positioning within transdisciplinary research collective. The particular (or multiple) ‘hats’ or roles an individual wears/performs. (Note this is shaped by co-production context & purpose)

(Maclean et al. 2022, Secules et al. 2021, Holmes, 2020, Pearce and Ejderyan, 2020)

Refers to both the research purpose (project aims) and the purposes for engaging with co-production. Both purposes need to be explored within the team, potentially to be revisited with transdisciplinary collaborators. Where appropriate, research and co-production purposes can be co-designed, and revisited in project monitoring.

(Chambers et al. 2021, Leith et al. 2017, Pearce and Ejderyan, 2020)

Refers to making visible and transparent the variety of power differentials that exist within research collaborations and broader societal actors involved in change processes. Reflects access to decision making via various frameworks, for example, these could comprise ideological, structural, actor and resource or discursive power. Dynamics of power and influence shape every aspect of research, from funding, problem definition, methodological preference, to who is involved, how engagement occurs, what outputs are produced and who benefits (or not).

(Lukes, 1974, McCabe et al. 2021, Turnhout et al. 2020, Avelino, 2017, Saif et al. 2022)

Refers to establishing the governance, learning, risk/benefit sharing and evaluation operating conditions, as well as the respective roles and responsibilities of individuals within the extended research collective.

An effective collective learning environment requires foundational pillars of equity, trust, reflexivity, openness and inclusivity.

(O’Connor et al. 2019, Austin et al. 2019, Campion et al. 2023, Greenaway et al. 2022, Djenontin and Meadow, 2018, Freeth and Caniglia, 2020)