Introduction

The discourses around gender disparity in women’s leadership in higher education institution have been debated for a long time across the globe; even though progress is evident and multiple initiatives have been implemented in several nations, the persistent underrepresentation of women in high-level leadership positions highlights that significant challenges and barriers still need to be addressed to achieve true gender equality in this sector. The latest 2024 report by Times Higher Education (THE) highlights that women now head 50 of the world’s top 200 universities—25% for the first time ever—with an increase of two female leaders from last year, representing a 79% increase since 2015. However, notwithstanding this progress, gender parity remains elusive as 14 out of 27 countries with top 200 universities have no female leaders (Times Higher Education 2024). The documented gender inequality, where women are notably underrepresented in leadership roles, including high-level leadership positions, is well-established in the literature within higher education (Arar et al. 2023; Burkinshaw et al. 2018). Despite progress over the years, the disparity remains significant. For instance, the European Union, encompassing 28 member countries (EU28), reported that there were only 701 women leaders as Heads of Institutions in the Higher Education Sector (HES) from 1993–2020, highlighting the persistent gender gap (European Institute for Gender Equality 2016).

The probability of men securing the highest-ranking positions in HEIs is four times greater than that of women (Robinson et al. 2017). For instance, in the United Kingdom, women hold 26.4% of such positions, 28% in Canada, 19.4% in Germany, 18.7% in the Netherlands, and 21.9% in France (Maheshwari et al. 2023). This underrepresentation of women is not confined to Western nations. In academic settings across Asia, the disparity is even more pronounced; for instance, only 6% of leadership positions in Indian HEIs are held by women (Banker 2023). The report on ‘Status of gender equality in higher education sector – an East Asia scoping study 2024’ by the British Council figured out that despite the increasing rates of women in higher education, they are often not seen as viable leaders and are underrepresented in leadership positions, facing cultural, social, and identity-related barriers that hinder their career progression and capacity to accede to leadership roles (British Council 2024). These suggest a global trend where women academics still face significant barriers to reaching disparity in management leadership roles in higher education institutions (Maheshwari et al. 2023).

The Malaysian higher education system has undergone significant transformation over the past few decades, with women playing the prominent role in both the academic profession and administrative leadership positions in the institutions. The Malaysian HEIs stand out, marked by a notable presence of 15,534 women academics compared to 9044 male academics, as indicated by the Ministry of Higher Education’s 2020 statistics (Ministry of Higher Education [MOHE] 2020). Although the prevalence of women academics, the number of women holding top leadership positions, such as vice chancellor, deputy vice-chancellor, and dean, remains significantly lower than their male counterparts. According to the MOHE’s 2020 data, only two out of 20 Malaysian public universities have women vice-chancellors (MOHE 2020). This disparity underscores the persistent gender imbalances at the highest levels of leadership within higher education institutions. Although comprising more than 50% of the academic profession in public universities due to government interventions, women still face challenges in achieving proportional representation in academic leadership and top decision-making positions (Azman 2021). The latest study by Othman and Hamid (2023) demonstrates that the lack of women academic leaders in higher education’s executive levels restricts exposure to the success of Malaysia’s top universities, highlighting the need for substantial attention from both the ministry and university administration to meet the national agenda of 30% women in decision-making policy and the SDG 5: Gender Equity targets. Significantly, the Twelve Malaysia Plan (2021–2025) emphasises the continuation of the previous national plans (10th and 11th) to empower the more significant roles of women in society, increasing economic participation and enhancing the role of women in decision-making. This agenda has great reflection implications for the Malaysian HE sectors, which has 20 public universities and more than 300 private HEIs.

In Malaysian higher education (HE), the career pathway is designed to be fair and equal, prioritising merit over gender when it comes to academic promotions (Md Yunus and Pang 2015). Despite this merit-based approach, there is still a noticeable gender disparity in senior leadership positions. Although the number of women academics is higher than that of male academics, women are underrepresented in senior leadership roles (Azman 2021). To understand the root of this imbalance, it is essential to consider the career trajectories of women in academia, particularly those as middle academic managers (Morley 2012). According to Turnbull et al. (2015), the middle-level women academics serves as a crucial stepping stone towards senior leadership. They help drive the institution’s vision and mission by acting as a bridge between top academic leaders and their subordinate faculty members, facilitating operations to align with the overall goals of the institution and faculty. To support women’s career growth to senior academic leadership, it is crucial to understand how they navigate the transition from the middle management position, where they often face multifaceted challenges that can hinder their career progression and research efforts at this stage (Qadhi et al. 2024). The literature by O’Donoghue (2023) examines the role of middle-level academics, noting that definitions vary widely among authors, with roles such as Deans, Programme Heads, Directors, Associate Deans, Sub Deans, Programme Directors, and Heads of Schools often included, but lacking consistent categorization across different studies and organizational contexts – they are crucial role for guiding departmental direction, influencing faculty morale, and implementing organizational strategies, as they bridge institutional strategies and operational execution. However, the study of leadership among women at the middle level is not extensively explored (Thompson and Stokes 2023). In Malaysia, women academic middle managers typically encompass individuals holding positions such as senior lecturer or associate professor, department head, program chairperson, or similar roles in the academic hierarchy of HEIs (Othman and Hamid 2023).

Understanding their perspectives is crucial as they contribute a diverse range of opinions and ideas, which play a pivotal role in advancing women’s leadership in HEIs. However, the perspective of middle-level women academics regarding the enablers that facilitate or hinder their progression to leadership roles have been notably scarce in the higher education literature. Most international publications primarily investigate the difficulties encountered by women leaders holding higher positions in leadership, such as deanship and professorship, or a mixture of leadership positions from different leadership levels (Maheswari and Nayak 2022), including in Malaysia (e.g., Islam et al. 2022). In addition to this focus, the local studies tend to concentrate on other related domains of studies, such as leadership styles (Othman and Hamid 2023) and decision-making approaches in HEIs (Md Isa et al. 2021).

Against this backdrop, this study aims to delve into the enablers and challenges of women leadership confronted by Malaysian HEI academic leaders from the perspective of middle-level woman academics. It also seeks to identify potential solutions and a path forward. The following questions guided this study.

  1. 1.

    What are the enablers of being a women leader in Malaysian HEIs from the perspective of middle-level women academics?

  2. 2.

    What are the barriers faced by the middle-level women academics that prohibit them from becoming leaders in the HEIs?

  3. 3.

    What are the recommendations to break the glass ceiling?

The present study aims to enhance our understanding of the enablers that facilitate and challenges that hinder women academics in attaining management leadership roles in HEIs from the lens of middle-level women academics. This study holds significance in reassessing existing enablers and challenges or barriers as well as providing recommendations to empower middle-level women academics in the academic leadership in a developing societal context.

Theoretical grounding

Eagly and Karau’s (1991) role congruity theory contends that there is a perceived incongruity between stereotypical women qualities and leadership roles. According to this theory, women leaders are often viewed as more empathetic, employing an affirmative and participative leadership style with a stronger emphasis on teamwork. They are perceived as goal-oriented and assertive. The role congruity theory posits that the perceived incongruity between gender roles and leadership manifests in two forms of prejudice. First, women are less favourably regarded than men as potential occupants of leadership roles. Second, women receive less favourable evaluations when their behaviour aligns with the qualities expected of a leader. However, the theory suggests that women leaders can thrive based on their capabilities and talents in a supportive organisational environment (Davidson and Burke 1994). Women leaders have the potential to enhance competitive advantage by attracting talent and promoting equality. Besides, support from male colleagues may play a role in cultivating more women leaders. Concurrently, the glass ceiling theory (Morisson et al. 1987) delineates a set of barriers obstructing the progression of women to the upper echelons of the workplace hierarchy (Bukstein and Gandelman 2019). Subsequently, the glass cliff theory (Ryan and Haslam 2005) implies a tendency to place women in precarious positions, potentially undermining their performance and placing them at risk of a figurative fall off a cliff (Kagan 2022). Women who are preferentially assigned to such risky leadership roles may face adverse consequences (Sabharwal 2013). Grounded in these theories, it becomes evident that organisational policies and practices that disproportionately and negatively affect women contribute to the formation of a hidden system of discrimination.

Literature review

Enablers

The attainment of leadership positions by women in HEIs can be attributed to various enablers deeply rooted in different dimensions of personal qualities (Maheshwari 2021). These enablers, which are identified in the literature, encompass critical aspects such as time management for self-development (Gandhi and Sen 2021). Effective time management in self-development allows women leaders to strategically plan, set goals, and prioritise tasks to enhance their professional competence. Moreover, women leaders exhibit a notable ability to articulate their thoughts concisely and effectively in meetings with higher authorities (Gandhi and Sen 2021). This communication skill is pivotal and focused communication enhances their influence and impact in decision-making processes. Additionally, the capacity of women leaders to maintain emotional composure in challenging and high-pressure situations is crucial, fostering resilience and the ability to make rational decisions even in adversity (Gandhi and Sen 2021). Earlier literature has emphasised other multifaceted personal qualities that collectively contribute to the success of women leaders. These qualities include adaptability, perseverance, risk-taking, agility to learn new things, ambition, and empathy (Bhattacharya et al. 2018). Maheswari and Nayak (2022) provided detailed insights, highlighting the importance of adapting to dynamic circumstances and environments, coupled with resolve, persistence to overcome challenges, and a willingness to take calculated risks for organisational advancement. These integral facets could contribute to enhancing the leadership competence of women leaders.

Apart from that, mentoring emerges as a key catalyst for fostering women leadership in HEIs, playing a critical role in delivering essential support, advice, and guidance throughout their professional paths (Maheswari and Nayak, 2022). Maheswari and Nayak (2022) highlighted the irreplaceable assistance provided by mentors and line managers, especially for women leaders who are new to their roles and face challenges. The guidance and support from mentors play a pivotal role in propelling women into higher positions within the academic hierarchy (Kulkarni and Mishra 2022). This recognition underscores the importance of external support structures, with mentoring relationships being a particularly influential factor in nurturing the professional development and success of women in leadership roles within higher education (Kulkarni and Mishra 2022). Beyond offering practical advice, mentors could contribute to the personal and professional growth of women leaders by helping them overcome obstacles and establish valuable networking relationships (Maheswari and Nayak 2022). Clearly, the mentor’s role becomes a crucial element in the trajectory of women leaders, equipping them with the tools and insights necessary for meaningful career advancement.

Moreover, family support together with self-efficacy and social modelling (mentor and role models) have collectively served as fundamental and primary motivators for women leaders in their careers (Maheshwari 2021; Maheswari et al. 2023). In particular, the support extended by spouses and family members emerges as a vital element in contributing to the success of women in leadership roles within higher education. The recognition of this contribution underscores the substantial influence that family backing exerts on the trajectory and achievements of women leaders in the HEIs.

Barriers

Many countries and higher education institutions (HEIs) have implemented various legislative measures and policies to foster gender equality and address sexism and gender bias in the workplace. However, gender inequality persists, with women still facing underrepresentation in leadership roles (Banker 2023). Existing literature has extensively identified barriers explaining the underrepresentation of women in HEIs (Wang and Gao 2022). Specifically, Islam et al. (2023) categorised barriers faced by women into three categories: individual-, social-, and organisational barriers.

Individual barriers

Women face a range of personal or individual barriers that hinder their progression to leadership roles, largely stemming from internal struggles related to self-perception, confidence, and motivation. Many women experience a lack of confidence in their leadership abilities, coupled with fears of failure, which dampen their ambition and willingness to pursue leadership positions (Howe-Walsh and Turnbull 2014; Robinson et al. 2017). These internal deterrents are often fueled by a low self-image and internalised gender stereotypes that shape how women view their professional capabilities (Wang and Gao 2022). A lack of confidence in navigating and embracing new technological demands and innovations in leadership roles has been identified as another individual barrier. This is particularly evident in contexts like Malaysian higher education, where women academics show hesitancy in pursuing leadership positions due to insufficient technological expertise, which is increasingly crucial in modern leadership roles (Islam et al. 2023). The fear of inadequacy in this area limits their ambitions and prevents them from advancing into leadership roles, especially within higher education institutions (HEIs).

Societal- and cultural barriers

Societal-cultural barriers to women’s leadership arise from deeply rooted gender norms and societal expectations that prioritise women’s roles within the family sphere, limiting their perceived suitability for leadership. Across many cultures, as noted by Bodalina and Mestry (2022), caregiving and family responsibilities are culturally designated to women, reinforcing beliefs that they may lack the capacity to manage high-stakes leadership roles. This societal-cultural conditioning establishes a gender bias, framing leadership as inherently masculine and aligning it with traits traditionally ascribed to men—such as assertiveness and decisiveness. As a result, women are often expected to demonstrate not only their competence but also to embody these culturally valued, male-associated traits to be seen as effective leaders. The societal-cultural context further intensifies these challenges by setting gendered expectations about women’s responsibilities and public roles. For instance, Maheswari and Nayak (2022) illustrate how Confucian values in Vietnam position family as a woman’s foremost duty, constraining her leadership ambitions. This societal-cultural pressure often requires women to choose between career advancement and family obligations, with many feelings compelled to remain in lower-tier positions to maintain this balance. Consequently, societal-cultural expectations around gender roles, family obligations, and accepted norms of female behavior add substantial challenges to women’s leadership pathways, necessitating that they navigate both societal biases and cultural expectations.

Organisational barriers

Organisational barriers stem from a predominant culture of male-dominated leadership, where established norms and routines within institutions pose challenges for women. The prevailing managerial practices in universities tend to endorse and uphold masculine leadership characteristics, emphasising traits such as competitiveness and individuality while potentially neglecting feminine styles such as supportiveness and empathy (Thomas and Davies 2002). Consequently, female leaders may grapple with uncertainty regarding their career progression and their ability to fulfil promotion requirements (White et al. 2011).

As highlighted by Islam et al. (2023), university selection processes exhibit a strong gender bias, with associated attributes and leadership characteristics often tailored to favour males, thereby limiting the advancement of women’s careers. Women in higher education frequently find themselves in precarious positions, holding short-term contracts and occupying marginal roles (Wang and Gao 2022). These factors collectively contribute to the notably low percentage of female academics and their underrepresentation in higher leadership positions (Benschop and Brouns 2003). The challenges faced by women leaders are exacerbated by a lack of institutional support, fostering a pessimistic perception of women’s academic career trajectories (Diehl 2014). This may be attributed to the prevalence of a standardised masculine model that has been universally applied by male-dominated systems, employing different standards to evaluate the work of women leaders (Neale and Özkanlı 2010). In summary, the organisational barriers outlined underscore the need for addressing gender biases and promoting a more inclusive and supportive environment within HEIs.

A comprehensive systematic review by Hilal et al. (2024) and Meza-Mejia et al. (2023) highlights that most existing research on women’s leadership in higher education predominantly centers on senior-level women leaders. These studies often explore factors that enable their success, such as mentorship, policy support, and access to professional development, while also addressing the barriers they face, including work-life balance difficulties and navigating male-dominated leadership cultures (Bodalina and Mestry 2022; Meza-Mejia et al. 2023; Wang and Gao 2022). However, research on women in middle-level leadership roles remains notably limited (Thompson and Stokes 2023), even though the critical importance of understanding how they manage the transition from middle management. At this stage, women often encounter a range of complex challenges that can obstruct their career advancement and research productivity (Qadhi et al. 2024). Addressing this underexplored area forms the primary focus of the current study, which aims to shed light on the enablers and challenges from middle-level women academics’ perspective.

Methods

Research design

This study employs a descriptive qualitative study using semi-structured interviews of open-ended questions. Creswell (2012) described that the exploratory questions in descriptive qualitative study focus on the kinds or varieties the phenomenon takes place in and the aspects the phenomenon have. The descriptive qualitative study is well-suited to the exploration of perceptions of middle-level women academics in relation to the enablers and barriers that facilitate and prohibit them from becoming women leaders in the HEIs. This study was conducted in “a natural setting, attempting to make sense of, or interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them” (Denzin and Lincoln 2011, p. 3) as the nature of qualitative research is naturalistic and interpretive.

Sample

Five public universities were chosen, encompassing three research universities (RUs) and two non-research universities in Malaysia. The selection of these universities was driven by the reason to capture diversity in both geographical locations and university types. The three RUs selected are located in the central, northern, and southern zones, while the two non-RUs are in East Malaysia and the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia respectively. Five informants were chosen from each university based on specific inclusive criteria. First, informants had to be women academics with a minimum of three years of professional experience. Second, they needed to be currently or formerly holding a formal administrative position at the faculty level, such as head of department or programme coordinator. Women academics appointed on a contract basis and fellow visiting scholars were excluded from the selection.

Purposive sampling was employed to ensure the inclusion of five women academics satisfying the specified criteria from each university. However, eight women academics declined to participate, resulting in a total of 17 informants. The decision to consider 17 informants as sufficient was based on the argument that the focus of in-depth interviews was not on generalising to the broader population of primary school leaders (Vasileiou et al. 2018). Table 1 presents information on 17 informants, including nine women academics specialising in the natural science cluster and eight in the social science and humanities cluster, as these clusters are defined by studies conducted by Cohen (2021) and Das and Paital (2021). The informants hold the position of senior lecturers, possessing three to 20 years of experience in their current universities. Most of them are either former programme coordinators, current programme coordinators, or assistant programme coordinators.

Table 1 Sample demographic background.
Full size table

Interview protocol

An interview protocol with three main open-ended questions were developed based on the corresponding research: (a) What are the enablers of being women academic leaders in HEIs?, (b) What are the challenges facing women in academic leadership positions in HEIs?, and (c) What are the recommendations for fostering women academic leadership in HEIs? Probes and sub-questions related to the informants’ responses were used to elicit further information that would shed better and in-depth understanding of their general answers. A pre-testing was conducted to make necessary adjustment and improvement of the interview questions. The researchers and two women academics were involved in the pre-testing.

Data collection and data analysis

This study secured human ethical approval from the local authority (USM/JEPeM/22080517). The semi-structured interview sessions took place between March and July 2023. Data collection was carried out by five trained interviewers using a protocol consisting of a set of semi-structured questions and probes. Depending on geographical locations and scheduling, interviews were conducted either face-to-face or online, with each session lasting approximately 45–60 min. The interviews were recorded in audio format and transcribed verbatim in English upon agreement. Subsequently, the transcripts underwent analysis by all authors of the current study. Next, cross-checking was conducted by three qualitative experts to validate the initial findings.

This qualitative study applied Braun and Clarke’s (2012) six-step thematic analysis process, which involves: (a) becoming familiar with the data, (b) generating initial codes, (c) identifying themes and subthemes, (d) reviewing developed themes, (e) defining themes, and (f) compiling the write-up. The thematic analysis of interview transcripts in this study facilitated the identification of key themes and provided rich descriptions of the collected data.

Results and discussion

The scarcity of literature on the factors that either facilitate or hinder the progression of women academics from middle-level to senior leadership roles in HE is noteworthy. This study aims to explore the enablers and challenges affecting the advancement of middle-level women academics, while also providing recommendations to enhance women’s leadership in HEIs. The thematic analysis revealed four key enablers and three barriers to leadership advancement, along with recommendations to promote leadership among women academics at middle-level in HEIs. Details of each theme are presented below.

Enablers

The informants’ views on the enablers of being women academic leaders in HEIs were presented into four themes: (a) gender-neutral, (b) management of multiple roles, (c) core personal competencies, and (d) mentor and role models.

Gender-neutral

The theme of gender-neutral appointments as leaders in HEIs without gender bias has become crucial for advancing women leadership. The current finding which indicates “everyone can be a leader” is contrary to the previous findings with the traditional expression of “think manager–think male” attitude (Nguyen 2013). This finding acknowledges the importance of promoting diversity and inclusivity in HEIs, not just as a matter of social justice but also to enhance HEIs’ overall quality and effectiveness.

One informant highlights that the work experience of academics is crucial in empowering women appointed as academic leaders within HEIs. As pointed out by IN15, “…It is not about male or female…The important aspect is he or she needs to be the head of the department first…at least three to four years of teaching experience… or he or she has held a position as a programme coordinator, …Thus, he or she has the experience to handle a leadership position…”. Contrary to the previous studies (Maheshwari et al. 2023; Wang and Gao 2022), the response emphasises that leadership roles should not be gendered but instead focus on an individual’s accumulated experience and ability to handle responsibilities. Carvalho and Diogo’s study (2018) supports this finding, suggesting that women leaders often articulate their career progression to high-ranking positions in terms of personal merit and hard work. Diogo et al.’s (2021) study indicated that individuals in leadership roles may view their capabilities and effectiveness as leaders independently of their gender, supporting the idea that leadership can be gender-neutral in practice. In fact, the constitution of decision-making bodies HEIs impacts the gender balance of their academics, suggesting that institutional structures and policies play a significant role in shaping gender representation in leadership positions (Diogo et al. 2021).

Opinions about the significance of seniority-based factors in appointing women leaders differ. Seniority-based factor remains arguable as indicated by IN11: “I think age does not affect the criteria for the selection of a leader, yes…it is true that if there is an older boss, the subordinates are more respectful but what is more important is the personality of the leader himself, how he or she can tackle his subordinates”. Contradictory viewpoints were expressed by IN14 and IN8, with one stating that “…the selection process depends on how long someone has held a senior position” while the other asserted that “…leadership positions should be determined by seniority and experience”. The divergence of views reflects the ongoing discourse on meritocracy versus experience. The findings underscored the challenge faced by Malaysian HEIs, akin to institutions globally, in striking a balance between the two.

Informants underscored that the selection of leadership roles should be free from gender bias. They emphasised that equal opportunities must be based on candidates’ capabilities and performance. As IN6 stated, “I don’t believe gender plays a role in the selection process. It seems to merit’s based on how well they perform”. IN2 stated firmly: “I will ensure there is equality in terms of treating my staff, there will not be any double standards. I will ensure that each staff is recognised for his or her own capabilities, and this will contribute greatly towards the KPI of the institution”. IN6 and IN2’s responses highlight that a system that rewards based on capabilities and performance is not merely an ideal but a necessary condition for the optimal functioning of HEIs. These responses align with global trends towards more inclusive workplaces, emphasising that diversity and inclusivity are ethical imperatives and crucial for the comprehensive advancement of HEIs.

Gender-neutral leadership position appointment criteria have become a significance within academic landscapes. Some argue that gender-based appointment criteria may be necessary to correct this imbalance while others caution against such measures, emphasising instead the need for more holistic and gender-neutral criteria (Isnaini et al. 2023; Nielsen 2016). Nonetheless, as HEIs maintain a supposedly gender-neutral standard of excellence without implementing balancing strategies, the future academic career opportunities for women are expected to decline even further (O’Connor and Barnard 2021). Gender-neutral appointment as the discourse around diversity, equity, and inclusion has evolved. It recognises the need for a more balanced, fair, and transparent recruitment process.

Management of multiple roles

The dynamics of the academic environment require women leaders to juggle multiple roles, ranging from administration to research, teaching, community outreach, and mentoring. The theme of self-efficacy in multitasking has emerged as a significant factor that underscores the perceived competence and ability of women leaders to efficiently manage multiple responsibilities, including family matters. This ability is seen as paramount in equipping women leaders in HEIs with the necessary skills to excel.

In this study, informants identified possessing self-efficacy to effectively balance familial responsibilities and work commitments through effective time management as a significant enabler factor that empowers the women leadership in HEIs, as highlighted by IN1: “Women most of them have a family. Time management is very important because if you are a leader, you must be more focused, and you must give more time more commitment and then nowadays you have to come back with the travelling”. IN10 has further reinforced this notion by highlighting the significance of effective time management. “You must balance your life…when you go home, you plan what to do when get back …don’t waste your time”. The responses shared by IN1 and IN10 highlight how time management, a skill indicative of high self-efficacy, plays an integral role in leadership. Effective time management, as evidenced in several studies such as Gandhi and Sen (2021) and Islam et al. (2023), is a crucial skill for women leaders and is reflective of their self-efficacy in multitasking.

Moreover, women academics are expected to demonstrate exceptional performance in fulfilling their academic responsibilities to qualify for leadership roles in HEIs. As narrated by IN10, “I believe they must excel in their job performance. They should be able to delegate work appropriately… they should be able to tackle workplace challenges adeptly and fulfil the key performance indicators of the university”. IN4 iterated that “selecting individuals with subpar key performance indicators as leaders would lead to a lack of respect and potential disorder in their management approach…So, I suppose it’s (based on) their performance”. This elevated performance standard also encompasses a strong track record in publications, student supervision, and international networking. IN8 explained, “It’s standard criteria; number of publications, your contribution, number of students you supervised and graduated”. Similarly, IN9 highlighted the importance of women academics’ capabilities in research, networking, internationalisation, and corporate social responsibility activities. The narratives from IN4, IN8, IN9, and IN10 suggest that women in academia are often held to a higher standard, requiring them to outperform to be considered for leadership roles. This need to consistently deliver exceptional results, such as top-tier publications or effective student supervision, demands an underlying self-belief that they can meet and exceed these standards. This belief is the embodiment of self-efficacy. By believing in their capabilities, women can set benchmarks, aim higher, and strive for excellence.

Self-efficacy in multitasking emerges as a part of key characteristic in enabling and empowering women leadership in academia. Women, with their innate ability to multitask which is rooted in high self-efficacy, are not only equipped to handle these challenges but also to pioneer change and drive excellence in HEIs.

Core personal competencies

The third theme from the data emphasises the significance of the core personal competencies attributes in defining successful women academic leadership. The informants’ perceptions converge on the importance of attributes manifesting in day-to-day activities and their impact on leadership roles. The informants emphasised the need for women academic leaders to exhibit leadership qualities or attributes in their daily responsibilities. Women leaders should possess a strong sense of teamwork, as highlighted by IN10, “Women academics must be capable of advocating for their colleagues’ requirements and standing up for their staff in any circumstance”. IN3 noted that women leaders should be proficient in intrapersonal and interpersonal skills. Meanwhile, IN4’s emphasis on catering to various groups brings forth the importance of self-awareness. Leaders need to know their strengths, weaknesses, and how they are perceived, thereby allowing them to adjust their approach according to the audience.

Furthermore, the informants suggested that effective women academic leaders must consistently exhibit clear and resolute decision-making. As stated by IN12, “Women leaders should dare to voice out and avoid being inconsistent in their approach. They should have a firm standpoint. You have your own opinion”. IN16 added, “To me, if you want to be the leaders in the university you have to be the voice so that everyone can listen to you”. The emphasis on clarity in decision-making and the ability to voice opinions firmly, as highlighted by IN12 and IN16, is crucial. Leaders often face complex decisions where ambiguity can lead to confusion and inefficiencies. IN3 reinforced that a willingness to contribute is vital for aspiring leaders: “It’s a personal choice whether you want to assume a leadership role or not. I believe that both females and males have equal rights”. IN3’s statement underscores an often-overlooked aspect of leadership, namely willingness. This voluntary assumption of responsibility and the belief in gender equity in leadership roles underpins the importance of intrinsic motivation and commitment to leadership roles, irrespective of gender (Ryan and Deci 2000).

The successful women academic leaders are characterised by a blend of personal attributes, effective communication skills, and the ability to make clear, decisive choices. These qualities, coupled with a voluntary commitment to leadership and a belief in gender equity, form the cornerstone of effective leadership in academia (Maheswari and Nayak 2022).

Mentors and role models

Mentors and role models play an indispensable role, particularly for women who aspire to hold leadership positions in academia. Kulkarni and Mishra (2022) as well as Maheshwari and Nayak (2022) revealed how the presence or absence of mentors and role models can subtly impede women’s progress. The influence of mentors and role models can shape career paths, inspire confidence, and provide invaluable insights. The informants perceived the current women leaders in HEIs as good mentors and role models to inspire women in academia. For example, IN9 explained, “Dr. Sharifah and Tan Sri Nurul Ainol, Secretary-General, Ministry of Education, these are the people who tried their very best to strengthen women’s leadership. They nurture the women leaders as compatible as male leaders”. Another informant added: “I am aware of a very outstanding faculty, that’s from another faculty because I’m seeing her. I congratulate and she is very young. She has small children. I know her and I look up to her” (IN5). The findings spotlight the powerful influence of established women figures in the educational domain and their dedication to amplifying women leadership provides a blueprint for others. Mentorship is crucial for the retention, success, and well-being of women in academia, offering professional support and behavioural examples, yet its absence in the higher education systems often leads to a lack of fundamental leadership guidance for many women academic leaders, particularly in identifying suitable leadership styles (Othman and Hamid 2023). Searby et al. (2015) recognised the benefits of mentorship, considering it a valuable undertaking that can greatly boost one’s career. These authors stressed the importance of having multiple mentors from both genders and underscored the value of gaining diverse perspectives.

Challenges

The informants put forward the notion that numerous challenges hinder women academics from assuming leadership roles in HEIs. These challenges include (a) traditional women roles, (b) social stigma, and (c) individual factors.

Traditional women’s roles

The informants recognised their adherence to traditional women roles within the family. They acknowledged that their ability to fully dedicate themselves to their careers was limited due to their familial responsibilities. According to Meza-Mejia et al. (2023), women academics in HEIs find it particularly challenging to harmonise their work and family life as they strive to balance their professional and personal responsibilities. This issue is further exacerbated by the lack of university policies that acknowledge and address gender-specific duties. Consequently, this leads to women academics shouldering a “double workload” in their day-to-day lives. As expressed by IN1, “Regardless of how good I am, I constantly contemplate how, if I were a man, I could give more commitment to my job without the same level of family-related concerns”. The findings presented suggest that despite advancements in society and the workplace, many women academic leaders still feel the pull of traditional roles. IN1 articulated a common response wherein women feel that their career commitments are often compromised because of their familial duties.

IN12 added, “Husbands might anticipate that their wives will allocate more time to family matters rather than their work”. IN12’s statement underscores a significant barrier to many women leadership aspirations: societal and familial expectations. It is a pervasive belief in many cultures that women should prioritise family over career, even when they occupy significant leadership roles. Some informants seemed to perceive men as the head of the family and workplace instead of women to take up the leadership role. For instance, IN17 narrated:

As a male, how do you view a women dean from an external perspective? What about the viewpoints of her own subordinates but also those of her peers and superiors? It’s possible that male colleagues might perceive a women boss as either excessively lenient or stern.

IN17’s perspective draws attention to another intricate challenge: navigating perceptions in a traditionally male-dominated space. When women do achieve leadership roles, they often face “double-bin” situations wherein they are either perceived as too soft or too hard, rarely hitting the “just right” mark.

Although societal advancements, women academic leaders continue to face significant challenges stemming from traditional gender roles and societal expectations. Salas‐Lopez et al. (2011) stated that balancing family and work responsibilities is a common challenge for women leaders and the key to their success lies in how they handle these challenges. Skills such as emotional and organisational intelligence, along with relationship building, are crucial strategies for effective leadership. Additionally, receiving support from family members and guidance from mentors significantly influences their professional achievements. Addressing these issues requires a concerted effort from both institutions and society to create an environment where women can thrive equally in both their professional and personal lives.

Social stigma

The informants identified a deep-seated presence of social stigma or gender stereotype with regard to women taking up the leadership role. According to Galsanjigmed and Sekiguchi (2023), beliefs and expectations tied to gender regarding the characteristics and behaviours of women and men play a significant role. These socially prescribed ways of behaving influence how socially acceptable an individual is, based on their gender. The concept of women leadership is often shaped by these gender stereotypes.

The informants valued men and women leadership behaviours in the workplace with distinct levels of appreciation. Male leaders were seen as displaying greater tolerance and leniency, involving themselves in decision-making, demonstrating care, empathy, and people-centred actions. IN12 highlights:

Males are better to be the dean because (it will be) easier for the subordinate to follow. Women I think not strong enough to lead the organisation. You know woman is more demanding, everything is in order, and must achieve the key performance indicators. Male leaders are different…they are easy-going.

The responses from IN12 reflects common stereotypes about gendered leadership. The perception that men are better suited for leadership roles due to their “easy-going” nature, while women are “demanding” and focused on keeping “everything in order”, echoes traditional beliefs about gender roles.

However, some informants believed that women can be more susceptible to emotional influence. As articulated by IN17, “Women often require companionship to ensure their safety during travel. They have to take numerous factors into consideration”. IN17’s comments reflect another stereotype—that women are more vulnerable and need protection, especially in contexts such as travel. Such beliefs, albeit seemingly benign, can limit opportunities for women if they are seen as needing additional resources or precautions. IN4 explained women tend to be more meticulous and thorough, and always pay close attention to details. Conversely, men often adopt a simpler approach, favouring straightforward and expedient thinking. IN4’s observation is especially salient. While women are often criticised for being “too emotional”, this informant reframes emotional depth as a strength.

The results expose the deep-rooted gender stereotypes affecting perceptions of leadership. While male leaders are often favoured for their perceived ease and tolerance, female leaders face stereotypes about their emotional nature and need for protection. The study by Meza-Mejia et al. (2023) emphasises the experiences of women academics in their career paths, facing numerous obstacles and challenges, and this is largely due to their functioning within cultures where men predominantly occupy positions of power and decision-making. Such an environment restricts their complete involvement in aspects such as research, decision-making processes, and various activities in higher education, extending beyond teaching and administration. However, a re-evaluation of these traits shows that what is often seen as a weakness in women leadership can be a strength, highlighting the need for a more nuanced understanding of gender dynamics in leadership roles.

Personal factor

The complexities of leadership in academic environments often intertwine with individual perceptions, beliefs, and feelings. The personal factor theme emphasises that while external barriers exist, internal barriers might also hinder women academics from pursuing and embracing leadership roles (Maheshwari 2021; Robinson et al. 2017). These internal or personal factors, including self-imposed barriers, confidence levels, and general hesitancy, can have a profound impact on career trajectories. Informants recognised that women academics often imposed barriers on themselves when considering leadership roles that would limit their potential future career progression. These personal factor barriers include both the lack of willingness and confidence that hinders women from assuming leadership roles.

Informants suggested women academics were often discouraged to pursue leadership positions. IN11 highlighted that “Even if they were selected based on their competence and willingness… there is still resistance to taking on leadership positions”. Some women academics may lack the confidence necessary to assume leadership positions. IN8 articulates, “(Women) possess the knowledge and experience, yet their confidence remains lacking”. This self-restraint is evident in the words of IN11, highlighting that despite the evident competence and even a demonstrable desire (willingness) to lead, there is an internal resistance—a hesitancy or a fear—that holds them back. This response is further echoed by R8, pointing out a disparity where knowledge and experience do not necessarily translate to confidence. Women, though qualified, often doubt their capabilities or feel they are not ready for leadership roles.

While external barriers to women academic leadership are significant, internal barriers are equally impactful. The findings supported gender-based stereotypes influence women’s self-perception, impacting their sense of identity, self-esteem, and confidence (Galsanjigmed and Sekiguchi 2023). Gender stereotype threat refers to the anxiety and fear individuals feel about potentially reinforcing negative gender stereotypes while undertaking tasks typically associated with their gender (Galsanjigmed and Sekiguchi 2023). This apprehension can impede their performance and aspirations. Besides, internalised gender stereotypes are likely to lead women to doubt their abilities, believing themselves unfit for leadership roles or feeling that their skills are insufficient. Thus, understanding and addressing these internal barriers is essential for empowering women in academia to realise their full leadership potential.

The way forward

Informants offered recommendations on efforts to accelerate the leadership among women academics in HEIs, which were categorised into three main themes: (a) providing initiatives, (b) women-oriented flexibility, and (c) professional development.

Providing initiative

Initiatives aimed at empowering more women in HEIs to step into leadership roles are crucial in fostering a diverse and inclusive professional landscape. DeFrank-Cole et al. (2014) urged that initiatives aimed at boosting the presence of women in leadership roles and offering ongoing support to women leaders in higher education are vital for several reasons. First, the endeavour to take on leadership in HEIs is distinctive, where transitioning to management roles often occurs through turn-taking, requiring adaptation to a new job without training or support. Second, merely achieving a leadership position does not guarantee sustained success for women leaders.

Informants expressed their concerns by underscoring the necessity of introducing initiatives that facilitate the advancement of women leadership in HEIs. IN3 emphasised the urgency of such initiatives, noting the abundance of highly qualified women in terms of education and professional experience. “I think it is high time to give initiatives because there are more qualified women in terms of education-wise and the working experience and everything”. IN2 conveyed frustration over the current dearth of initiatives aimed at nurturing and bolstering women leadership roles, particularly within universities. In this regard, the need for universities to take proactive measures which allow women the opportunity to assume leadership positions was emphasised. IN12 mentioned that there was a lack of awareness about government initiatives targeted specifically at women leadership, indicating that women leaders were appointed based on their competence and willingness rather than through designated programmes.

To propel the advancement of women academic leadership, a potential strategy could involve implementing a career path system tailored to women. For instance, when a woman academic embarks on their academic journey, the university could provide a career path framework that outlines various avenues for career progression. This empowers women academics to select their preferred trajectory, potentially diverging from the suggested path while still benefiting from exposure and awareness about leadership roles. IN17 narrated, “Women academics can choose what’s the path that they prefer and then they may not follow the guideline, but at least can expose and alert them for the women academics to be a leader”.

According to Selzer and Robles (2019), the career paths of women in higher education are often non-linear, highlighting the necessity to accept and adapt to this “zigzag” path. This understanding is crucial for women who are aspiring to advance in their careers as it informs them about how to manage their aspirations. While flexibility is key, it is equally vital for these women to be deliberate in formulating their career plans and ensuring their visibility, thereby enhancing their perceived leadership potential.

The insights from the informants underscore a critical gap in HEIs – the lack of dedicated initiatives for some institutions to promote women leadership (Klenk et al. 2022). While there is an acknowledgment of the existing talent pool of highly qualified women, the efforts to translate this into effective leadership roles remain insufficient. This might be a call for a more proactive stance and interventions from universities and government bodies to recognise and utilise the potential of women academics in leadership positions. Establishing targeted initiatives and programme could be a significant step forward in bridging this gap and fostering a more inclusive and diverse leadership landscape in higher education.

Women-oriented flexibility

The concept of women-oriented flexibility in work schedules and arrangements is emerging as a key factor in nurturing women leadership. These measures are seen as pivotal in encouraging more women academics to step into and excel in leadership roles within their institutions. Flexible work options can help women academic leaders better manage multiple roles, which provide more options for where and when they work. Mazerolle and Barrett (2018) highlighted that flexible work arrangements have become the key initiative in achieving work-life balance. While the specific forms of these arrangements can differ, the underlying principle remains consistent: having autonomy over the timing and location of work completion.

Granting flexibility in terms of scheduling and work arrangements would cultivate women leadership in HEIs. IN1 pointed out that affording women the priority to take time off when needed could be advantageous. IN1 further highlighted that creating policies that are supportive and accommodating would encourage capable women academics to assume leadership positions. Instituting policies that facilitate the balance between family and work responsibilities, such as organising meetings and workshops in a family-friendly manner, could motivate women academics to pursue leadership roles.

Moreover, IN7 recommended the inclusion of facilities such as onsite nurseries within institutions, along with making arrangements that streamline family commitments as these measures could enhance the focus of women academics on their positions; “If you can provide for them to easy their life you have like nursery inside the institutions, transit you know whatever you can make their arrangement for their family is easy so they will have more focus on their positions”. In line with this perspective, IN15 also expressed that implementing measures to simplify the lives of women academics—such as incorporating childcare facilities and devising solutions that assist with family-related responsibilities, would ultimately enable them to concentrate more effectively on their leadership roles.

The perspectives shared by the informants highlight the critical need for women-oriented flexibility in HEIs to foster women leadership. By providing supportive policies, accommodating work arrangements, and family-friendly facilities, institutions can create an environment where women academics are encouraged and enabled to pursue and thrive in leadership roles (Islam et al. 2023). Such measures not only assist in balancing work and family responsibilities but also contribute to a more inclusive and equitable academic landscape, where women leadership is both valued and facilitated.

Professional development

Establishing a professional development programme or training for women leadership within the HEIs, particularly targeted at young and talented women academics, is recommended. Providing women with professional development opportunities can assist them in achieving their career and personal goals, potentially enhancing their confidence to pursue leadership positions (Maheshwari and Nayak 2022). R16 recounted instances of events focusing on women leadership that involved campaigns or workshops designed to empower women with leadership skills. “Some of the events for the women leaderships like to appreciate women, they have like a campaign or a kind of like a workshop for women’s training how to become a leader” (IN16).

It was suggested that these leadership programme or training initiatives could be delivered either online or in person, thereby encouraging a higher participation rate among women academics. “…These training programmes could equip women academics with insights into various leadership roles, whether at the departmental or university level, encompassing aspects like academic promotion and beyond” (IN7). IN7 highlighted the potential for mentoring as a valuable strategy for nurturing future women leaders among the younger academic cohort. Such a mentoring approach could play a significant role in fostering the growth of women leadership.

The professional development programme includes workshops, training, and mentorship opportunities, which play a crucial role in empowering women academics, especially young and talented women academics (Madsen et al. 2012). They not only enhance the participants’ leadership skills but also boost their confidence in pursuing higher positions within their academic fields. These initiatives are essential in equipping women with the necessary tools and knowledge for various leadership roles, thus contributing to a more diverse and inclusive academic leadership landscape. Figure 1 shows the respective themes of enablers, challenges, and the way forward.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Enablers, challenges, and the way forward.

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Conclusion

This study seeks to explore the factors that enable and impede the progression of middle-level women academics into senior leadership roles within higher education as well as identifying key recommendations to promote women’s leadership in this context. The findings address the research questions posed of the current study. This study identified four enabler factors that support the advancement of women in academic leadership at middle-level: gender-neutral policies, management of multiple roles, core personal competencies, and the presence of mentors and role models. These findings illustrate how institutional policies, and personal strengths contribute to leadership progression. Additionally, three key barriers—traditional women’s roles, social stigma, and personal factors—were highlighted, underscoring the ongoing challenges that middle-level women academics face in advancing their careers. This study also provided recommendations to accelerate leadership among middle-level women academics in HEIs. These recommendations include (a) providing institutional initiatives that promote gender equity and inclusivity, (b) introducing women-oriented flexibility to help balance professional and personal responsibilities, and (c) enhancing opportunities for professional development tailored to women’s leadership needs.

Among the novel insights discovered, the emphasis on gender-neutral policies as a significant enabler stands out, differing from previous studies that largely focused on gender-specific initiatives such as women’s leadership programs. This finding suggests that institutional policies that are inclusive of all genders, rather than solely targeting women, may create a more equitable environment that benefits leadership advancement. The study also reinforces the critical role of mentorship and role models along with core personal competencies while revealing that traditional gender roles and societal expectations continue to present formidable challenges for middle-level women’s career progression. These findings contribute new perspectives to the existing body of knowledge for women in higher education leadership particularly in a Southeast Asian society.

Implications

The current findings offer valuable guidance for policy implications. HEIs are encouraged to adopt and promote gender-neutral policies in creating an inclusive environment. These policies should prioritise equal opportunities, fair promotions, and transparent selection procedures for leadership positions. Furthermore, HEIs’ policies could promote the development of multitasking skills among women academics by providing resources such as time-management training, childcare facilities, and flexible work arrangements. HEIs may consider investing in initiatives dedicated to cultivating leadership skills and qualities in middle-level women academics. Initiating leadership training programmes can focus on enhancing crucial attributes such as decision-making, communication, and strategic thinking. In addition, the establishment of formal mentorship programmes is recommended, encouraging senior women leaders to mentor middle-level academics by offering valuable guidance and support in navigating career challenges. Acknowledging the individual factors hindering women leadership, HEIs should contemplate providing counselling services, creating support networks, and offering resources to assist middle-level women academics in overcoming personal challenges.

For the implication of policy development or revision, the promotion of gender-neutral policies should be prioritised. Policymakers could revise current policies to ensure they are not inadvertently biased towards one gender, while simultaneously fostering an inclusive leadership environment that benefits all. For example, establishing transparent promotion criteria and equal access to leadership training for both men and women could reduce institutional biases. Besides, the need for women-oriented flexibility highlights the importance of policies that address work-life balance. HEIs could introduce or revise family-friendly policies, such as flexible working hours or childcare support, to alleviate the challenges faced by women balancing professional responsibilities with traditional roles at home. These policies can create an environment where women feel supported and encouraged to pursue leadership positions without compromising personal commitments. Apart from that, professional development policies should emphasise the creation of formal mentorship programs and leadership training specifically designed for women. Policymakers should consider integrating mentorship into institutional leadership pathways, ensuring that emerging women leaders have access to role models and mentors who can guide them through the challenges of leadership transitions.

Limitations

The current findings pertain specifically to Malaysian research and non-research HEIs, suggesting limited applicability to diverse institutional and cultural settings. Therefore, future large-scale quantitative studies could complement these qualitative findings. Such studies would serve to determine the prevalence and statistical significance of the enablers, challenges, and suggestions identified in this current study measured by valid survey instruments. The current sample’s size and composition might not fully represent the entire spectrum of experiences and perspectives within the target middle-level women academics. To address this limitation, future studies could involve comparisons across different types of HEIs, considering variations in cultural contexts and geographical locations. This recommendation could unveil both commonalities and differences in the experiences of women academics and leaders. Although this study examined women leadership in Malaysia, a Muslim country in Southeast Asia, it did not specifically address the distinctive aspects of leadership for Muslim middle-level women. To gain a more comprehensive understanding of how religious factors impact leadership styles, challenges, and opportunities for these women academics, future research should delve deeper into this dimension. By broadening the scope of inquiry to include Muslim women’s leadership, future studies can enhance the current body of literature and contribute to the development of more impactful policies and practices that promote gender equality and empower women leaders in various cultural and religious settings.

Overall, this study contributes to the field by offering a deeper understanding of the enablers and challenges for middle-level women academics in leadership. The findings underscore the importance of creating supportive, equitable institutional environments, with clear pathways for women’s leadership advancement. Ultimately, this research has the potential to impact professional practice and policy development, fostering a more inclusive leadership landscape in higher education. The contribution of this study helps pave the way for more women to transition into senior leadership roles, enhancing the overall diversity and strength of academic leadership, particularly in a Southeast Asian context.