Fig. 7: The relationship results between the independent variables and economic growth.

Source: Researcher design using the results of FGLS. Note: The colors and arrows in the figure are intended to differentiate between various relationships rather than convey specific meanings themselves. The signs (+/−) inside the arrows indicate the nature of the relationships between the variables and economic growth. CC indicates to carbon consumption, OC indicates to oil consumption, NGC refer to natural gas consumption, RE refer to renewable energy consumption, K is the capital, L is the labor, and TO is the trade openness.