Fig. 9: Causal relationships between economic growth and independent variables in the GCC countries. | Humanities and Social Sciences Communications

Fig. 9: Causal relationships between economic growth and independent variables in the GCC countries.

From: Nexus between renewable-disaggregated non-renewable energy consumption and economic growth in GCC countries: a Cobb-Douglas production function analysis

Fig. 9

Source: Researcher design using the results of D-H causality test. Notes: The two-headed arrow (↔) represents the two-way relationship, while the one-headed arrow (→) represents the unidirectional relationship, and finally the arrow devoid of heads (—) represents the absence of a causal relationship between the two variables. CC indicates to carbon consumption, OC indicates to oil consumption, NGC refer to natural gas consumption, RE refer to renewable energy consumption, K is the capital, L is the labor, and TO is the trade openness.

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