Introduction

With the enhancement of national health awareness, leisure sports have become a habit for many people (Mutz et al., 2021). To meet the public’s exercise needs, the majority of popular social applications in Mainland China have embedded sports functions, such as WeRun in WeChat, Ding Sports in DingTalk, and Alipay Sports in Alipay. These functions are designed to record daily steps, exercise time, track routes, et al. (MacPherson et al., 2019). Utilizing user movement data, these applications have revolutionized the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) by extending it from offline to online (Okazaki et al., 2020). This innovation strategy is termed as Virtual Corporate Social Responsibility (VCSR) co-creation (Jurietti et al., 2017; Cheng and Kodono, 2022).

Compared to traditional CSR, which is primarily enterprise-driven, VCSR co-creation projects utilize Web 2.0 technology to create an online-offline model that emphasizes user-centric value co-creation and interactive participation (Zhou et al., 2024; Arrigo et al., 2022). This approach fosters collaboration between enterprises and individuals, benefiting both parties and contributing to societal welfare (Sarkar and Sarkar, 2020; Appolloni et al., 2022; Shahzad et al., 2023). A prime example of VCSR co-creation projects through leisure sports is “Walking Donation” embedded in WeChat, a leading social application in China, which provides organizations with a platform to initiate such various authentic philanthropic projects as poverty alleviation, disaster relief, educational support, ecological and cultural preservation, and scientific and technological research (Jurietti et al., 2017). It was discovered that from January to June 2024, the WeChat “Walking Donation” has consistently attracted an average of over 490,000 participants each week, amassing nearly 5.2 billion steps in collective donations for 183,000 Yuan in public welfare funds to help 44 public welfare projects. Figure 1 shows the record of a Walking Donation user on June 13, 2024. On this day, the user walked 23,278 steps, which were exchanged for 0.48 Yuan in charity funds from the charity project initiator. Since the user had donated steps for 7 consecutive days, the funds were doubled from the original 0.24 Yuan. The user donated these funds to the “Caring for the Elderly and the Young, Warming the Community with Love” project. Additionally, the user’s cumulative exchanged charity funds amount to 550.75 Yuan.

Fig. 1
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An example of Wechat Donation from a user (accessed on June 13, 2024).

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Despite the success of “Walking Donation”, user commitment remains inconsistent, impacting loyalty and engagement within the VCSR ecosystem (Zhou et al., 2024). Challenges such as sustaining regular participation and shifting user preferences highlight the need to investigate motivational factors to enhance long-term engagement (Yu and Song, 2022; Wu and Guo, 2022). Existing studies have illuminated the benefits and distinctive features of VCSR initiatives (Sun et al., 2022). Additionally, Tencent’s “Ant Forest” project has garnered widespread attention, where users are incentivized to engage in low-carbon activities, collectively contributing to long-term ecological benefits through virtual tree planting (Cheng and Kodono, 2022). In contrast, the “Walking Donation” project is designed to achieve short-term objectives, highlighting a different approach within the VCSR landscape. Despite the increasing interest in VCSR, little research has examined VCSR co-creation from the perspective of leisure sports.

Moreover, current research has not fully examined the impact mechanisms of long-term engagement (Shahzad et al., 2023; Fan et al., 2020). From the user’s perspective, motivation theory provides a valuable framework for understanding why individuals participate in VCSR initiatives (Sansone and Tang, 2021). Yet few studies have specifically analyzed participation motivation in VCSR contexts, particularly through leisure sports. From the perspective of the project itself, the demand-induced innovation theory posits that robust user motivations necessitate project designs that fulfill user needs and enhance satisfaction, thereby increasing participation willingness (Martínez-Ros and Merino, 2023). However, current VCSR co-creation projects often lack sufficient incentives to sustain long-term user commitment (Zhou et al., 2023). Future research should identify design flaws that fail to hinder user satisfaction and propose strategies to enhance user engagement with the projects (Nie et al., 2023). From the perspective of external stimulus, policy support can take the form of public campaigns that raise awareness of the benefits of participation or incentives that enhance its appeal (Gustat et al., 2019). When users perceive strong policy support, they are more likely to feel encouraged and motivated to participate in VCSR projects. However, the role of policy support perception as a potential for engagement remains underexplored in existing research (Cheng and Kodono, 2022).

Overall, this study addresses these gaps by investigating how user participation motivations, project design satisfaction, and policy support perception influence continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation” as a VCSR co-creation project. The theoretical contributions of this study are twofold: (1) It constructs a framework examining user motivation, project design satisfaction, and policy support perception from the perspectives of users, platforms, and governments. By integrating these factors into a single framework, this study offers a more nuanced perspective on how different stakeholders interact to shape user engagement. (2) It highlights leisure sports as a key factor in VCSR co-creation, offering a fresh insight that complements existing research.

In addition to the theoretical contributions, this study also has practical implications:(1) For corporations, insights into user motivations and policy support can help corporations design more engaging VCSR projects that align with user needs and government initiatives. (2) For users, understanding the factors that influence their participation can enhance their experience and encourage more responsible social behaviors. (3) For governments, the findings can inform policy-making to support the development of sustainable VCSR initiatives that promote both corporate competitiveness and societal welfare.

The rest of the study is organized as follows: section “Literature review and hypotheses” reviews the literature and develops hypotheses; section “Methods” outlines the methodology; section “Results” presents the empirical results; and section “Discussion” discusses the findings and concludes the study.

Literature review and hypotheses

Intrinsic motivation on user continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation”

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) proposes that individuals have innate motivations that can generate internal driving forces (Ryan et al., 2021). With the context of VCSR co-creation activities, participation motivation can be divided into two aspects: psychological benefits and material benefits (Baswani et al., 2021; Waseem et al., 2021; Jun et al., 2020). Building upon this framework and through the lens of leisure sports, this study refines three distinct dimensions of participation motivation: Personal Social Responsibility Motivation (RM), Physical and Mental Health Motivation (HM), and Online Persona Motivation (PM) (Minguez and Sese, 2021).

Personal social responsibility (RM) refers to an individual’s sense of obligation to contribute to societal well-being, driven by moral values and ethical principles. Rooted in moral identity, it reflects a behavioral norm that emerges from an intrinsic human desire to help others. Moral identity, defined as “the element of the self that translates considerations, judgments, principles, and ideals into moral motives” (Rajakishore and Vineet, 2020), plays a key role in shaping behavior. According to Moral Reinforcement Theory, activating moral identity reinforces an individual’s self-perception as a “moral person,” thereby encouraging consistent moral actions (Shang et al., 2020). This mechanism explains how moral identity serves as a catalyst for sustained behaviors, such as continuous participation in VCSR activities. For example, users are encouraged to walk daily, and their accumulated steps are converted into charitable donations by “Walking Donation”. Framed through the lens of personal social responsibility, this study proposes that heightened moral awareness motivates individuals to actively and persistently engage in initiatives like “Walking Donation”.

H1a: Personal social responsibility motivation positively affects user continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation”

Physical and mental health motivation (HM) refers to an individual’s drive to engage in activities that enhance their well-being, encompassing both physical fitness and psychological satisfaction. In recent years, the pursuit of physical and mental health has become a top priority for individuals, as maintaining a healthy lifestyle is increasingly recognized as essential for personal and social development. For example, “Walking Donation” leverages this motivation by combining physical exercise with charitable contributions, enabling users to improve their health and gain spiritual satisfaction as their daily walking efforts translate into donations (Mikkelsen et al., 2017). Since motivation is closely tied to behavior, and heightened motivation promotes more positive actions, physical and mental health motivation is likely a key driver of users’ continuous participation in “Walking Donation”(Sansone and Tang, 2021). Accordingly, Hypothesis H1b is proposed.

H1b: Physical and mental health motivation positively affects users’ continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation”

Online persona motivation refers to an individual’s drive to craft and maintain a desired social image through digital platforms, often by engaging in behaviors that enhance their online presence and align with societal expectations. Individuals often prioritize their social image and engage in strategic self-presentation (Bareket-Bojmel et al., 2016; Huh et al., 2016). Social Impact Theory suggests that individuals adjust their behaviors to align with social norms under societal pressures (Minguez and Sese, 2021). In the digital age, social media platforms enable individuals to project their desired online persona through self-enhancement techniques (Chen and Chen, 2022). This motivation is evident in VCSR co-creation activities, where users participate in initiatives that align with societal values to enhance their social image (Friedrichsen and Engelmann, 2018). For example, “Walking Donation” awards digital badges to users who meet daily login and step goals. Displaying these badges in social circles reinforces self-discipline and sustains participation, driven by the desire to maintain a positive online persona. Thus, online persona motivation likely influences users’ continuous participation in “Walking Donation.” Accordingly, Hypothesis H1c is proposed.

H1c: Online persona motivation positively affects users’ continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation”.

The mediating effect of project design satisfaction

Mediation effect explains that user motivation affects user engagement indirectly by first influencing their satisfaction with the project design, which then drives their engagement. User motivations, which inherently reflect user needs, trigger demand-induced innovation, prompting enterprises to refine and innovate platform mechanisms to meet these needs (Martínez-Ros and Merino, 2023; Hong et al., 2022). These innovations extend beyond technical improvements, encompassing enhanced user interfaces, increased interactivity, and the provision of personalized services (Theophilou et al., 2024; Frederick and Pegoraro, 2023). As users’ needs are translated into specific expectations for platform performance and design, their satisfaction depends on whether these expectations are confirmed or exceeded (Tam et al., 2020; Nascimento et al., 2018). When users perceive that these innovations align with or exceed their expectations, their satisfaction increases, thereby fostering sustained engagement (Shiau et al., 2020). As such, the conversion of user motivations into sustained engagement may be mediated by user satisfaction with various aspects of social platform design, including Incentive Design Satisfaction (IDS), Esthetic Design Satisfaction (ADS) and Functional Design Satisfaction (FDS) (Shiau et al., 2020; Xi and Hamari, 2019).

The incentive mechanisms within the “Walking Donation” initiative are meticulously designed to cater to diverse user needs through external stimuli, thereby fostering and reinforcing users’ engagement (Laesser et al., 2019; Amin et al., 2022). For instance, digital badges are awarded to users who reach specific milestones in contributing to social causes, recognizing their efforts and providing a sense of achievement and social validation. Step-based donation conversions and health reports offer tangible incentives by linking physical activity to charitable contributions while providing users with insights into their health progress. Additionally, social leaderboards and shareable achievements allow users to showcase their contributions and progress on social media, enhancing their online persona and encouraging friendly competition. When users perceive these incentive mechanisms as well-designed and capable of effectively stimulating their motivations, their satisfaction is likely to increase, enhancing their likelihood of long-term engagement with the “Walking Donation” program (Koivisto and Hamari, 2019; Krupci and Corr, 2020; Feng et al., 2020). Therefore, Hypotheses H2a1, H2b1 and H2c1 are proposed.

H2a1: Incentive Design Satisfaction mediates the relationship between personal social responsibility motivation and continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation”

H2b1: Incentive Design Satisfaction mediates the relationship between physical and mental health motivation and continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation”

H2c1: Incentive Design Satisfaction mediates the relationship between online persona motivation and continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation”

In the “Walking Donation” initiative, the esthetic design enhances user engagement by creating a visually appealing and emotionally engaging experience, such as color, shape, and layout (Xu et al., 2023; Kou et al., 2022). For example, the platform features visually appealing progress trackers that display the impact of users’ steps on charitable contributions, using vibrant colors and intuitive designs to provide a sense of achievement and social validation. Health dashboards with dynamic charts and harmonious color schemes offer users insights into their physical activity and health progress, making the experience both enjoyable and informative. Additionally, shareable graphics and social leaderboards allow users to showcase their achievements on social media, enhancing their online persona and encouraging friendly competition. Overall, when users find these esthetic elements well-designed and aligned with their motivations, their satisfaction increases, which in turn promotes sustained participation in the “Walking Donation” program. Accordingly, Hypotheses H2a2、H2b2 and H2c2 are proposed.

H2a2: Esthetic Design Satisfaction mediates the relationship between personal social responsibility motivation and continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation”

H2b2: Esthetic Design Satisfaction mediates the relationship between Physical and mental health motivation and continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation”

H2c2: Esthetic Design Satisfaction mediates the relationship between Online persona motivation and continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation”

In the “Walking Donation” initiative, functional design drives user engagement by delivering practical features that are both useful and easy to use, such as the accuracy of step counting, the simplicity of the donation process, and the stability of system responses. These features collectively enhance user satisfaction and meet users’ needs and expectations (Kamal et al., 2020). For instance, the platform offers accurate step-tracking, which reliably quantifies users’ contributions to charitable causes, enabling them to visualize the direct impact of their efforts. Additionally, seamless donation processing allows users to effortlessly convert their steps into donations, reinforcing their sense of purpose and satisfaction. Furthermore, personalized activity summaries provide users with detailed insights into their physical activity and progress, making the experience both informative and user-friendly. As users find these functional elements well-designed and aligned with their motivations, their satisfaction grows, ultimately encouraging long-term involvement in the “Walking Donation” program. Accordingly, hypotheses H2a3、H2b3 and H2c3 are proposed.

H2a3: Functional Design Satisfaction mediates the relationship between Personal social responsibility motivation and continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation”

H2b3: Functional Design Satisfaction mediates the relationship between Physical and mental health motivation and continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation”

H2c3: Functional Design Satisfaction mediates the relationship between Online persona motivation and continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation”

Moderating effect of policy support perception

The moderation effect explores how the impact of user motivations on sustained participation changes based on the level of policy support perception. Policy support perception refers to users’ awareness and interpretation of government-backed initiatives, including public opinion campaigns, information dissemination, and material incentives, which collectively shape their experiences and motivation realization processes (Campos et al., 2021; Gustat et al., 2019). By creating a supportive environment and validating users’ efforts, policy support perception, as a contextual factor, can amplify the effects of various motivations on sustained participation (Balqiah et al., 2023).

Personal social responsibility motivation drives individuals to engage in activities such as “Walking Donation”, as they seek to contribute to societal well-being. Users who perceive stronger policy support are more likely to actively engage in social welfare activities, such as walking donations, as they feel their contributions are both recognized and impactful (Wirba, 2024). For instance, when users perceive tangible benefits from tax incentives for charitable donations, such as reduced financial burdens and public recognition of their contributions, their sense of fulfillment and commitment to social causes is strengthened (Ji and Miao, 2020). Similarly, public campaigns like “Beautiful China, I am an Actor” not only raise awareness but also create a sense of community and shared purpose, further amplifying users’ motivation to participate(Ji and Kim, 2020). By aligning individual actions with broader societal goals, these initiatives foster a deeper sense of validation and impact, making participants feel that their efforts are meaningful.

Physical and mental health motivation is a key driver for users to engage in walking donation activities. In recent years, governments have introduced various health policies and initiatives, such as the “Healthy China 2030” plan, which aims to promote public health by providing accessible sports facilities, community health services, and public fitness campaigns (Whitsel, 2017). These policies create an environment that supports and encourages healthy behaviors (Bagshaw et al., 2024). As users perceive the benefits of these policies—such as the convenience of public sports facilities, the availability of community health programs, or the motivational impact of public fitness campaigns—they are more likely to feel supported in their health goals (Ludbrook, 2019; Chen et al., 2016). This perceived policy support amplifies their health motivation, leading to a higher likelihood of sustained participation in walking donation activities.

Online persona motivation enables users to achieve personal health goals while demonstrating their social responsibility and cultivating a positive digital image. With the advancement of digital technology, governments have increasingly invested in digital infrastructure and platform development to enhance public services and support social activities (Lera-Lopez et al., 2016). For instance, the Chinese government’s “Digital China Construction Overall Layout Plan” emphasizes integrating digital technology into public welfare and social governance, aiming to build a robust digital ecosystem that fosters socioeconomic development. When users perceive the benefits of these digital initiatives—such as improved transparency, convenience, and a more trustworthy online environment—they are more likely to actively engage in digital activities (Liu, 2024). Consequently, their online persona motivation is further strengthened, leading to a greater likelihood of sustained participation in walking donation activities.

Accordingly, this study introduces the moderating role of policy support perception, and hypotheses H3a、H3b and H3c are proposed.

H3a: Policy Support perception moderates the relationship between Personal social responsibility motivation and users’ continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation”

H3b: Policy Support perception moderates the relationship between Physical and mental health motivation and users’ continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation”

H3c: Policy Support perception moderates the relationship between Online persona motivation and users’ continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation”

Overall, the theoretical framework of the study is presented in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
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Proposed model.

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Methods

Research model

Our research focuses on how the motives of social apps users affect their continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation” as a VCSR co-creation project through the mediating role of project design satisfaction and the moderating role of policy support perception. The concept of user motives, project design satisfaction and the intention to continue participation are vague, and the variables are not easily measured directly and accurately. Therefore, these constructs, known as latent variables, need to be assessed indirectly through the use of observable indicators. These constructs in question have multiple dimensions, complicating the analysis of users’ motives for continuous participation intention. A structural equation model (SEM), which allows for the simultaneous estimation of multiple equations and handles latent variables effectively, is well-suited for our research needs (Piramanayagam et al., 2024; Hancock and An, 2018).

The study employs hierarchical regression to examine the moderating effect of policy support perception. By incrementally introducing the independent variable, control variables, and interaction terms, it determines whether policy support perception significantly moderates user motivations on continuous participation intention. This approach ensures a comprehensive analysis of both direct and moderating effects (Cheng et al., 2025). The relevant models are shown below:

$${{CPI}}_{i}={\beta }_{0}+{\beta }_{1}{{RM}}_{i}+{\beta }_{2}{{HM}}_{i}+{\beta }_{3}{{PM}}_{i}+{\beta }_{4}{{PSP}}_{i}+{\beta }_{5}{{Control}}_{i}+{\varepsilon }_{i}$$
(1)
$$\begin{array}{l}{{CPI}}_{i}={\beta }_{0}+{\beta }_{1}{{RM}}_{i}+{\beta }_{2}{{HM}}_{i}+{\beta }_{3}{{PM}}_{i}+{\beta }_{4}{{PSP}}_{i}+{\beta }_{5}{{Control}}_{i}\\\qquad\quad\;\;+\,{\beta }_{6}{{RM}}_{i}\times {{PSP}}_{i}+{\beta }_{7}{{HM}}_{i}\times {{PSP}}_{i}+{\beta }_{8}{{PM}}_{i}\times {{PSP}}_{i}+{\varepsilon }_{i}\end{array}$$
(2)

Where CPIi represents continuous participation intention as the dependent variable, RMi means personal social responsibility motivation, HMi means physical and mental health motivation, PMi means online persona motivation, PSPi is the moderating variable, meaning policy support perception, Controli represents a set of control variables, such as age, gender, etc, RMi × PSPi, HMi × PSPi, PMi × PSPi are the interaction terms. In these models, β6, β7, β8 indicate the moderating effect of policy support perception. εi means the random disturbance term. i denotes the individual.

Data collection and participation

The data for this study were collected through an online survey targeting users of popular social applications, including WeChat, DingTalk, and Alipay, who have participated in at least one walking donation event. We designed an online survey using Wenjuanxing (Questionnaire Star) platform, an online crowdsourcing one in mainland China that offers functions equivalent to Amazon Mechanical Turk. The Wenjuanxing platform was selected for its robust capabilities in questionnaire distribution, reaching a vast user base in the hundreds of millions, thereby ensuring a reliable and efficient data collection process. Considering the unique nature of our target group, which consists of users who have utilized the “Walking Donation” feature at least once, Respondent-Driven Sampling (RDS) was selected as the primary sampling method. RDS effectively addresses the challenge of identifying and reaching this specific user segment by leveraging the social networks of initial participants to recruit subsequent respondents. This approach not only rapidly expands the sample size through the propagation characteristics of social networks but also reduces sampling bias and provides more accurate estimates, as demonstrated in similar contexts (Gile et al., 2015). Additionally, stringent measures were implemented to ensure the security and confidentiality of personal information provided by the respondents.

After excluding 49 participants who exited the survey midway and 4 participants who provided insincere responses by selecting the same value across all scale items, a total of 53 participants were removed. These patterns may indicate that the participants did not take the survey seriously or made input errors. The final sample comprised 506 individuals who completed the questionnaire and provided valid responses. Fifty-one percent were male, and forty-nine percent were female. The average age of the participants was 35.71 years. Table 1 also describes the details of the amounts of walking and donations reported by the participants.

Table 1 Sample characteristics.
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Measures

We developed an online survey structure into two main sections. Initially, participants were asked to provide demographic information and cognition for “Walking Donation” as a VCSR co-creation project. Subsequently, the survey delved into 28 variables categorized into four distinct groups. Continuous participation intention was measured mainly following Kuo and Chen (2023), Nie et al. (2023) and Tu et al. (2019). Intrinsic motives to engagement were assessed mainly following Severo et al. (2021). Additionally, satisfaction with the project design was measured mainly following Amin et al. (2022). The remaining variables about policy support perception were assessed following Campos et al. (2021). All variables are measured with 7-point Likert scales, ranging from “not at all/strongly disagree” to “exactly/strongly agree.” See Appendix 1 for the details. To ensure the validity and applicability of measures, we conducted a pre-survey with a small sample of 20 participants and made minor adjustments to the wording of some items to better fit the context of “Walking Donation” users.

Results

Reliability and validity test

To examine the reliability of the scale, Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability (CR) were calculated for all constructs. As shown in Table 2, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients and CR values for all constructs exceeded the recommended threshold of 0.7, indicating high internal consistency. Additionally, the factor loading values for all items of each construct ranged from 0.693 to 0.877, further supporting the reliability of the measurement scale. These results demonstrate that the questionnaire exhibits a high degree of intrinsic correlation among the measurement indicators, confirming its reliability.

Table 2 Reliability and convergent validity analysis.
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To assess the validity of the scale, structural validity, convergent validity, and discriminant validity were examined. First, Bartlett’s test of sphericity (p-value = 0.000) and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy (KMO = 0.868) confirmed the suitability of the data for factor analysis, supporting the structural validity of the measurement scale. Second, convergent validity was established as the average variance extracted (AVE) values for all constructs ranged from 0.503 to 0.721(as shown in Table 2), exceeding the recommended threshold of 0.50. Third, discriminant validity was confirmed as the square roots of the AVE values were greater than the inter-construct correlation coefficients (as shown in Table 3), indicating distinct and non-overlapping constructs.

Table 3 Correlation matrix of latent variables.
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Structural equation modeling path analysis

Table 4 presents the results of the test of hypotheses of the structural relationship between the research variables. It can be seen that the motivations of personal social responsibility, physical and mental health, and online persona all have significant positive effects on the continued intention to participate. Hence, H1a, H1b and H1c were effectively verified. The influence of physical and mental health motivation on functional design satisfaction was not significant, while other path coefficients were significant.

Table 4 Model path analysis.
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Table 5 lists the fit indices of the model, where χ²/df (Chi-square/df ratio) = 2.114 (less than 3.0), GFI (Goodness of Fit Index) = 0.921 (greater than 0.9), AGFI (Adjusted Goodness of Fit) = 0.902 (greater than 0.9), CFI (Comparative Fit Index) = 0.95 (greater than 0.9), and RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation) = 0.047 (less than 0.05), all of which are within the acceptable range, suggesting that the model is reliable (Lance et al., 2016).

Table 5 Model fit parameters for the mediation model.
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Analysis of mediation effects

Table 6 presents the results of the mediating role of design satisfaction between user motivations (RM, HM, PM) and continuous participation intention. There are key takeaways:

  • ✧ Incentive Design Satisfaction significantly mediates the relationship between all three motivations and participation intention. That is, H2a1, H2b1, H2c1 are supported.

  • ✧ Esthetic Design Satisfaction significantly mediates the relationship between all three motivations and participation intention. That is, H2a2, H2b2, H2c2 are supported.

  • ✧ Functional design satisfaction significantly mediates the effects of RM and PM, but not the effects of HM. That is, H2a3, H2c3 are supported while H2b3 is rejected.

Table 6 Mediation effect test knot based on the Bootstrap method.
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Analysis of the moderation effects

Table 7 presents the results of the moderating influence of policy support perception between motivations (RM、HM、PM) and continuous participation intention. There are key takeaways:

  • ✧ Policy support perception significantly moderates the effect of personal social responsibility motivation (RM) on continuous participation intention. That is, H3a is supported.

  • ✧ Policy support perception significantly moderates the effect of physical and mental health motivation (HM) on continuous participation intention. That is, H3b is supported.

  • ✧ Policy support perception does not moderate the effect of online persona motivation (PM) on continuous participation intention. That is, H3c is not supported.

Table 7 Hierarchical Regression Analysis results for moderating effect.
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Discussion

General discussion

The study aimed to ascertain whether a direct link exists between motivations and users’ continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation” as a VCSR co-creation activity, and to explore whether user satisfaction with project design serves as a mediating factor in this relationship. Additionally, the study sought to assess the moderating role of policy support perception on the connection between user participation motivation and sustained user engagement.

The present study’s results demonstrate that three motivations enhance user’s continuous participation intention, thereby supporting Hypotheses 1a to 1c. This echoes the principles of Self-Determination Theory (SDT), which emphasizes that individuals are more likely to sustain their engagement in activities over the long term when motivated by intrinsic motivations derived from participation (Ntoumanis et al., 2021; Coleman and Sebire, 2017).

In this study, personal social responsibility motivation is characterized by an individual’s desire to make a constructive societal impact through participation in VCSR co-creation initiatives. This motivation is fundamentally tied to a dedication to social equity and well-being, as well as the recognition of societal responsibilities (Gagrcin, 2024). Furthermore, Social Identity Theory reinforces this perspective, suggesting that individuals are more likely to engage in actions that are in harmony with the values and expectations of their social collective, thus encouraging their participation in activities that fulfill social responsibilities (Małecka et al., 2022). Given that “Walking Donation” discussed in this study is based on the daily step counts of social media users, they are closely related to individuals’ health motivations. The study demonstrates how converting physical activity to donations combines health and social benefits, creating a dual-participation model that engages users (Sun et al., 2022). Additionally, studies have shown that individuals can rapidly establish and propagate their positive online persona through self-presentation on social media platforms in the backdrop of a digitalized society. For example, engaging in leisure sports for WeChat step donation and then participating in VCSR co-creation activities, the public display of WeChat step counts and digital rewards for public welfare donations in the friend circle can notably enhance their positive persona within the social network. Such a persona not only bolsters the trust of others in the individual but also reinforces the individual’s sense of self-identity (Friedrichsen and Engelmann, 2018). These findings render the conclusion as self-evident that the motivation to craft a favorable online persona positively influences an individual’s willingness to engage in VCSR co-creation activities.

The findings support hypotheses H2a1, H2b1 and H2c1, demonstrating that user satisfaction with incentive design plays a partial mediating role in users’ continued participation intention in “Walking Donation”. The intrinsic motivations of users, such as personal social responsibility, physical and mental health, and online persona, drive social platforms to innovate in their design. This aligns with the Demand-Pull Innovation Theory, which emphasizes that market demand is a key driver of technological innovation and new product development (Martínez-Ros &Merino, 2023). Specifically, when social platforms meet these intrinsic motivations of users through well-crafted incentive mechanisms, such as reward systems, recognition mechanisms, and interactive features, user satisfaction is enhanced. As satisfaction increases, users are more likely to continue participating in activities on the social platform, forming a positive cycle where the incentive design continually satisfies users’ motivational needs, and the sustained participation of users, in turn, validates the effectiveness of the design. This aligns with the principles of positive reinforcement from operant conditioning theory, which posits that the likelihood of a behavior is increased when it is followed by a rewarding stimulus (Singh et al., 2024). Whether driven by the resonance of values or the recognition of social responsibility, the intrinsic motivation of participants is strengthened under the influence of the incentive design, making their participation more enduring and profound. A case in point is WeChat step donation feature, which exemplifies this approach. WeChat tracks users’ daily exercise steps and establishes a threshold of 6000 steps as the minimum for eligibility in donation exchanges. Additionally, when users have donated their steps for seven consecutive days, the charity funds will be doubled. These encourage users to exercise daily and reach a certain exercise goal. Upon completing their step donations, the platform offers transparency regarding the allocation of funds and celebrates individual achievements. It provides such visualized rewards as user badges and digital tokens, which add a layer of gratification to the user experience (Feng et al., 2020).

As previously hypothesized from H2a2, H2b2, H2c2, esthetic design satisfaction serves as a significant mediating effect between different motivations and participation intention, with its mediating effect value being slightly higher than that of incentive mechanisms. The application of esthetic designs in digital interfaces plays an important role in stimulating users’ willingness to participate (Gatautis et al., 2016). For instance, Wechat walking donation mini-program offers a comfortable visual experience through its fresh green and white color scheme and red flower dynamic dolls. In VCSR activities, esthetic design, such as touching stories and powerful visual metaphors, can more effectively stimulate users’ emotions, making them more willing to participate in charitable donations. Therefore, the application of esthetic designs in VCSR co-creation is a multidimensional process. It involves not only the esthetic appeal of the user interface but also the emotional aspects of the user experience (Wu and Hsu, 2018).

The functional design serves as the cornerstone for VCSR co-creation initiatives. When the project’s features address a range of user needs, it is more likely to foster a higher degree of participation (Camilleri et al., 2023). For instance, by simplifying the user experience through features such as automatic step counting and one-click donations, functional design can reduce barriers to participation. Additionally, by setting daily or weekly reminders (triggers), it becomes easier for users to form participation habits, thereby enhancing the likelihood of long-term engagement. This aligns with Hypotheses H2a3 and H2c3, indicating that functional design partially mediates the relationship between motivations rooted in personal social responsibility and online persona and the willingness to engage. It suggests that VCSR project designs have successfully catered to user demands concerning personal social responsibility and online persona, leading to a satisfactory user experience.

However, our study does not support the H2b3 hypothesis, which posits that functional design enhances the connection between health motivation and the intention to participate. Specifically, the path analysis in Table 4 reveals that health motivation does not significantly promote functional satisfaction, indicating that the current project design fails to effectively capture and address users’ health motivation needs. According to the Health Belief Model (Yoo et al., 2018), if the functional design does not clearly demonstrate how participation in VCSR activities leads to direct and measurable health benefits (i.e., perceived benefits), users may not effectively link their health motivations to their participation behaviors. More specifically, there is a notable design bias in current VCSR projects: designers tend to prioritize transactional features (e.g., step counting and donation processing) while neglecting health-oriented features that align with users’ intrinsic health motivations (Salehan et al., 2017). For example, participants have deeper needs and expectations besides basic functional value during their VCSR value co-creation journey. For instance, users may desire more personalized feedback that helps them understand how their physical activities contribute to achieving long-term health goals. Instead, they often receive only generic updates on step counts or donation outcomes. This lack of targeted health-related feedback may limit users’ perception of the health benefits of participation, thereby weakening the moderating effect of functional design on the relationship between health motivation and participation intention.

Our research reveals that the perception of policy support significantly moderates the relationship between user social responsibility motives and health and wellness motives, and their willingness to participate in “Walking Donation”, corroborating Hypotheses H3a and H3b. Numerous studies have indicated that human behavior is enacted within specific contexts, and these contexts can facilitate the more effective translation of motives into actions (Minguez and Sese, 2021). Governments provide users with legal and regulatory safeguards, public opinion guidance, information technology guidance, etc., including the protection of user privacy, promotion of health, and enhancement of social responsibility. The higher the users’ perception of government support, the more it can enhance the experience during the process of motive realization, playing a positive role in the willingness to continue participating (Hung et al., 2024). However, research has also found that policy support perception does not significantly moderate the relationship between social image motivation and participation willingness (H3c). On one hand, online persona motivation is more closely aligned with an individual’s intrinsic values and sense of identity, rather than being driven by external policies. On the other hand, although policies have done a lot of positive work in encouraging and supporting volunteer services and promoting the construction of social civilization, the actual implementation and effectiveness of policies may still be insufficient to exert enough influence among users to moderate the relationship between social image and participation willingness. Additionally, the design of VCSR platforms may not effectively integrate policy support into the user experience. For instance, if platforms do not highlight policy-related benefits (e.g., tax deductions, public recognition) or provide feedback on how users’ actions align with policy goals, users may not perceive policy support as relevant to their participation. This lack of integration further weakens the potential moderating effect of policy support perception.

Theoretical contribution

In this study, we examined the internal and external factors that influence user’s continuous participation intention in “Walking Donation” as a VCSR co-creation project through the following theoretical contributions.

First, we develop a multi-stakeholder theoretical framework encompassing social media users, platforms, enterprises and governments to explain participation willingness in VCSR co-creation. This model advances existing research by simultaneously examining user motivations, user satisfaction with design factors and governmental support mechanisms. Overall, this multi-stakeholder integration offers a potential theoretical advancement by expanding beyond individual users and self-determination theory to examine VCSR co-creation dynamics more comprehensively (Zhang et al., 2024; Ross and Barnes, 2018).

Second, this study bridges individual leisure sports with social participation, offering innovative strategies for social progress through technology platforms. Our findings suggest that leisure sports can simultaneously enhance individual well-being and contribute to societal welfare, achieving dual goals of personal and social benefit. By framing leisure sports as a form of social responsibility, we challenge the traditional view that social responsibility is confined to businesses and governments (Ye et al., 2021). This perspective opens new avenues for research on individual health behaviors and their potential to drive value co-creation. For instance, future applications could integrate dietary monitoring systems that track nutritional intake and automatically enroll users in VCSR initiatives upon achieving predefined health benchmarks, potentially linking personal wellness with social impact.

Practical implications

This study offers practical recommendations for stakeholders to enhance VCSR co-creation.

First, individuals are encouraged to regard leisure sport as a positive form of social engagement. By enhancing the sense of social identity, we can inspire people to realize that exercise is not just a component of personal health but also a contribution to the well-being of society. To achieve this, communities and businesses should organize regular events and public advocacy campaigns. For example, they can host monthly recognition ceremonies to reward individuals who excel in both exercise and social involvement. These ceremonies could feature personalized awards and certificates to acknowledge participants’ achievements, as well as public recognition through local media or community leaders to share their inspiring stories.

Second, fostering collaboration between social platforms and enterprises aims to enhance user satisfaction. Social platforms can leverage their extensive user base to help businesses expand their influence and achieve their social responsibility goals. By utilizing their capital advantages, enterprises can initiate charitable projects to fulfill their corporate social responsibilities and increase user retention. Through this mutually beneficial cooperation model, user satisfaction can be effectively improved, promoting the sustainable development of VCSR co-creation activities (Iglesias et al., 2020). For instance, both parties can jointly conduct user feedback collection and analysis to adjust project strategies in a timely manner, ensuring that activities always meet user expectations and needs. Such collaboration not only enhances the practical benefits of the project but also enriches the user experience.

Third, governments establish rules that ensure the legitimacy of exercise-based donations while fostering tech advancements to improve donation tracking and transparency. For example, governments can support the application of blockchain technology. The distributed ledger technology of blockchain ensures that donation records are transparent to all participants, allowing the public and third-party auditors to view and verify the use of funds at any time. By creating secure, transparent, and immutable donation records, every donation can be effectively traced and verified, thereby significantly enhancing donor confidence (Jadiyappa and Shette, 2024). Additionally, governments can provide incentives for businesses to adopt such technologies, such as tax breaks or grants, to accelerate the adoption of transparent donation systems.

Limitations and future research directions

The limitations of this study offer a foundation for future research. Firstly, the one-time questionnaire data limit the ability to capture temporal changes in users’ continuous participation intentions. Future studies could use panel data and integrate information from multiple sources, such as social media analysis and user behavior logs, for a more comprehensive understanding. Secondly, the construction of the SEM framework is inherently subjective and may introduce selective biases. For example, this study simplifies user motivation into three distinct dimensions. However, user motivation should be more complex and multifaceted, and other potential motivational factors, such as the need for social connection or a sense of belonging, may not have been captured in this study. Future research could explore a broader range of motivational factors. Lastly, as an observational study, this research utilized SEM to explore the interrelationships among various influencing factors. However, establishing causal relationships requires further validation. Future research could employ randomized controlled trials (RCTs) to confirm the causal links between the identified factors (Dash and Paul, 2021).