Introduction

Tourism is a pivotal industry that propels a nation’s economic development (Enilov and Wang, 2022; Naseem, 2021). Tourism is the third-largest export sector globally, behind fuel and chemicals (Rasool et al., 2021). Moreover, the overall contribution of the tourism sector to global gross domestic product (GDP) has risen annually. In 2021, the tourism and travel industry contributed US$5.81 trillion to global GDP, reflecting a 21.7% increase following a substantial decline in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic (Ntalakos et al., 2022). Halal tourism is a niche sector of the tourist business catering to Muslims, providing services compliant with Islamic law (Hendrik et al., 2024; Rasul, 2019). The global Muslim population has reached 2 billion, representing one-quarter of the world’s population. Seventy percent of Muslims are below 40, comprising 21.5% from Generation Alpha, 27.2% from Generation Z, and 22.9% from the Millennial generation (Rhama, 2022). Consequently, Muslim visitors have become a specialized segment and a significant export market for the global tourism sector (Gunduz et al., 2023; Seçilmiş and Sarı, 2023). Halal tourism, as a subsector of the tourist industry, possesses considerable potential for development in the future. The economic potential is evidenced by the anticipated value of Muslim travel in 2028, estimated at US$225 billion (Abas et al., 2024). Before the COVID-19 epidemic, the Global Islamic Economy Report projected a 35% increase in the financial turnover of the Halal tourist industry, rising from US$177 billion in 2017 to US$274 billion in 2023 (Sutarman, 2024).

Notwithstanding these advances, empirical research examining the behavioral aspects of Muslim visitors is still scarce. Previous studies have examined basic push and pull variables in tourism motivation; however, there is less understanding of how Islamic attributes (IA)—such as halal offerings—moderate these interactions and affect visitor pleasure and destination loyalty (DL). This disparity is especially evident in research incorporating theological, motivational, and behavioral frameworks within halal tourism. This study seeks to address this gap by examining the impact of travel motivation (push and pull factors) and Islamic destination image (IDI) on tourist satisfaction (TS) and DL, with IA serving as a moderating variable. The study examines Muslim-majority countries and non-Muslim locations that accommodate Muslim travelers, providing an extensive industry analysis. This study enhances academic literature by merging motivational theory with Islamic tourism and examining the overlooked influence of religious values on travel behavior. It presents an innovative moderating framework utilizing Islamic qualities, offering a profound understanding of how religious compatibility improves enjoyment and cultivates DL.

From a practical perspective, the findings of this research have direct implications for policymakers, tourism marketers, and business operators, particularly in countries aiming to attract Muslim travelers. By identifying the factors influencing Muslim tourists’ satisfaction and loyalty, this research assists destinations in Muslim-majority and non-Muslim countries in adapting their offerings better to meet the needs of this rapidly growing market. The practical impact extends to guiding the development of halal-friendly products, services, and policies, e.g., Explicit halal designation on menus and prayer rooms (musalla) in airports, hotels, shopping centers, and attractions. Prayer rugs and Qibla direction markers in hotel accommodations. Activities suitable for families and modest, Guided tours of cultural, historical, and religious sites that honor Islamic principles. Avoid clichéd or tokenistic representations and concentrate on peak travel periods such as Ramadan, Eid, and school vacations in Muslim-majority nations, thereby contributing to the global expansion of halal tourism, particularly in countries like Saudi Arabia and Iran, as well as in non-Muslim nations that have begun to cater to Muslim visitors. In conclusion, this research provides a contemporary and novel viewpoint on halal tourism, enhancing theoretical frameworks and practical applications for a growing portion of the worldwide tourist industry.

Literature review and hypotheses development

The motivational theory of push and pull

In tourism, push and pull factors are two interrelated forces that affect an individual’s travel destination choice. Push factors are intrinsic reasons or personal requirements that compel an individual to pursue travel, including the desire for leisure, an escape from quotidian routines, adventure, social engagement, or personal satisfaction. These elements “dissuade” tourists from their native surroundings. Conversely, pull factors are a site’s exterior characteristics or allure that entice tourists to visit a specific location. These encompass natural landscapes, cultural and historical landmarks, good climate, events, cost, and the general perception or reputation of the destination. Push and pull aspects collectively elucidate the motivations behind travel and the selection of destinations, rendering them fundamental ideas in tourism research and destination marketing. Push–pull motivational theory (PPMT) has been foundational in tourism studies that examine travelers’ motivations (Preko et al., 2021). PPMT explains why people travel (Jurowski, 1994; Uysal and Hagan, 1993), and this study applies it to explore why Muslims travel to Saudi Arabia. The country is making substantial investments to promote various cities globally as destinations for halal-conscious religious tourists. Halal tourism, which ensures a comfortable experience for strict Muslims during their visits, is supported by the World Halal Institute. This theory suggests that tourists’ travel behaviors are bidirectional, involving factors that attract and entice them to particular locations. Understanding travelers’ motivations is crucial to interpreting their actions, as it clarifies the reasons behind some behaviors while others remain ambiguous. In the context of tourism, the purpose of a trip is linked with the set of attributes that cause a person to participate in a tourist activity (Pizam et al., 1979) aimed at fulfilling their objectives and expectations (Katsoni, 2023). According to Rofiqo (2023), motivation is a key factor influencing a tourist’s decision to visit a particular location. Alternatively, once tourists have decided to travel, their choice of destination is influenced by pull motivation, comprised of actual resources and their perceptions and expectations of the location’s attributes, attractions, or attributes (Duong et al., 2023). External factors such as food, local culture, entertainment options, ecological and historical sites, and the destination’s promoted image significantly attract visitors (Dean and Suhartanto, 2019). Therefore, understanding travel motivations is crucial. Advertisers and investors in the tourism sector should focus their marketing efforts on aligning a destination’s key attributes with the needs and expectations of potential travelers (Yousefi and Marzuki, 2015).

Islamic halal tourism: a new brand concept

Traveling and journeys are highly encouraged in the Qur’an. In Surah Al-Ankabut, verse 20, Muslims are urged to explore both near and far to better understand the world and themselves. Travel through the earth and see how Allah originated creation. So will Allah produce a later creation, for Allah has power over all things. In recent years, concepts such as Islamic tourism (Halal), Islamic hospitality, and Halal-friendly travel have gained popularity in various countries, particularly in the Middle East, similar to the idea of Halal food (Battour et al., 2010). Explore Islamic insights, culture, traditions, art, history, and the moral dilemmas that have emerged since the birth of Islam through the lens of Islamic tourism (Rahman, 2014). According to Haq (1984), “Halal” refers to any travel-related activity considered permissible by Islamic teachings. Activities that are unrelated to Islam and its principles, such as Islamic law (Shariah), Islamic values, rules, ideologies, and worship, are not deemed “Islamic” in the strictest sense (Douglass and Shaikh, 2004). The closest Arabic term for this concept is “Mu’minoon” (Ibn Kathir, 2000).

Islamic tourism encompasses various forms, including family tourism, which is rooted in Islamic principles and aims to explore the remnants of ancient and contemporary civilizations. Many individuals are attracted to Islamic tourism primarily due to its cultural aspects (Javed et al., 2017). This tourism often includes accommodations that exclusively offer halal cuisine and non-alcoholic beverages. A recent addition to the travel and tourism sector is the Halal Holiday travel package, which provides comprehensive vacation services following Islamic beliefs and customs. Religion significantly influences Muslim travelers, guiding their choice of destinations and shaping their behaviors, actions, views, and feelings during their travels (Suseno et al., 2023). According to Carboni and Janati (2016), Islamic tourism has gained popularity and evolved rapidly in recent years. With a growing awareness of halal tourism worldwide, many countries now provide halal services that enable Muslim tourists to enjoy their vacations and perform daily activities through Islamic teachings. Contemporary Islamic tourism sectors offer halal business models that link halal travel with halal entrepreneurs, creating numerous new opportunities for growth (Battour et al., 2021).

Tourist motivation factors with tourist satisfaction

Researchers usually believe individuals travel and pick their places based on several pulling and pushing factors that motivate them (Cai, 2002). The motivational theory of push and pull states that exterior, concrete causes draw people to travel, but interior, emotional factors urge them to travel first. Additionally, it presupposes that these two groups of forces may operate alone or in tandem. The psychological motivations that drive tourists to travel are pushing forces (Goossens, 2000). Travel requirements directly correlate to the degree of satisfaction experienced by travelers. As a result, it’s necessary to have a comprehensive understanding of motivation that adapts to various pleasure levels (Faulina et al., 2020). The desire to travel and satisfaction among travelers are significantly related, according to Yoon and Uysal (2005). Travel motivation research often focuses on the general public, as per Chiang and Jogaratnam (2006). Even though Muslims have become a significant consumer market in the West, studies examining their travel reasons have lagged behind their Western counterparts. Theoretically, visitor happiness can be influenced by both push and pull factors. This research aims to formulate hypotheses on the connection between pull and push factors in tourism and visitors’ satisfaction levels.

H1: Push motivations positively impact the tourist satisfaction.

H2: Pull motivations positively impact the tourist satisfaction.

Islamic destination image and tourist satisfaction

Destination image is the collection of an individual’s beliefs and thoughts about a specific environment or setting. Destination image denotes the comprehensive perceptions, impressions, beliefs, and emotions individuals or prospective tourists associate with a certain destination. TS refers to the emotional condition of visitors when they get enjoyment from the tourism experience or their overall assessment of the entire tourism process, including pleasure with tourism products and services (Liu et al., 2023). Contemporary studies on tourism have progressively highlighted the significance of IDI in influencing TS, especially among Muslim tourists. The destination image is often defined as visitors’ views, feelings, and emotional reactions toward a location Suryawardani et al. (2024). When integrated with Islamic aspects, it holds particular significance for faith-based travelers. Fajriyati et al. (2022) examined the impact of general and IA on TS, revealing that IA, including the availability of halal cuisine, prayer facilities, surroundings conducive to modest attire, and alcohol-free settings, substantially improves TS. Notably, although these factors exerted a substantial beneficial influence, Islamic religiosity did not significantly modify the association between these variables and pleasure, indicating that destination characteristics are relevant even beyond individual religious devotion. Hamdy et al. (2024) proposed the idea of a Muslim-Friendly Visitor Destination Image (MFTDI), demonstrating that a robust Islamic image enhances perceived value, visitor satisfaction, and behavioral intentions, such as intent to revisit and refer. Their research validated that Islamic-compliant infrastructure and services are essential for enhancing a favorable visitor experience. Dabphet (2021) expanded this discourse by investigating non-Muslim locations, revealing that halal-oriented services—such as halal-certified restaurants, prayer facilities, and alcohol-free alternatives—substantially enhance the happiness of Muslim visitors, even in mostly non-Muslim environments. A study conducted in 2024 on millennial Muslim visitors in Bandung revealed that attributes of Islamic destinations influence destination image and greatly impact TS and inclination to come (Suryawardani et al., 2024). This is especially crucial for appealing to newer Muslim visitors, who prioritize value and experience. A 2022 study on halal tourism sites in West Sumatra, Indonesia, revealed that the halal destination image significantly impacts visitor satisfaction, in conjunction with environmental and socio-cultural aspects (Zulvianti et al., 2022).

Since the destination image notion is so important to travelers’ decisions, many academics and scholars have looked into it deeply (Siregar et al., 2021). Research on how people perceive a place has grown in importance in tourism over the past 30 years. Scholars employed several methods to establish the theoretical basis of destination image (Sudigdo and Khalifa, 2020). Travelers’ perceptions of their favorite vacation spots make up their destination image. The research conducted by Sudigdo and Khalifa (2020) found the impact of Islamic destination attributes—such as the presence of worship facilities, halal food alternatives, and compliance with Islamic moral standards—on the TS and travel decisions of Saudi Arabian visitors visiting Jakarta. They are satisfied with the destination’s attributes and level of service (Dedeoğlu, 2019). Regarding halal tourist spots, Islamic characteristics and superior halal services may enhance their reputation (Wantara and Irawati, 2021). Destinations that adhere to Islamic principles attract Muslim travelers. Islamic morality emphasizes the importance of typical politeness, which includes avoiding explicit material, free mixing of sexes (particularly in public pools), and following an Islamic clothing code, among other things. The traits of the Islamic faith become important variables when Muslims want to travel elsewhere. Islamic elements refer to Islamic customs and traditions pertinent to travel locations (Monoarfa et al., 2022).

A study described that travelers’ rational or cognitive considerations about accessibility, awareness, accommodations, and manufactured and natural sights significantly impact their mental representation of a location (Irfan et al., 2020). Accordingly, Huete Alcocer and López Ruiz (2020) believed that the primary determinants of the cognitive image were accessibility, lodging amenities, attractiveness, and tourist qualities. The previous literature shows that Islamic characteristics can influence tourists’ perception of a halal destination. Consequently, formulated the hypothesis is

H3: Islamic destination image positively influences tourist satisfaction.

Destination loyalty and tourist satisfaction

DL is “the level of tourists’ commitment to revisit a destination or recommend it to others, which is influenced by satisfaction, perceived value, and destination image (Chen and Tsai, 2007).” In the context of tourism, tourist loyalty is regarded as an extension of consumer loyalty (Zhang et al., 2014), indicating that if visitors perceive the destination experience as a product, they may choose to revisit or recommend it to family and friends (Stavrianea and Kamenidou, 2022). It is frequently operationalized as a behavioral intention, encompassing intents to revisit and suggest (Prayag et al., 2017). The intention to revisit a tourist site is a form of post-consumption behavior characterized as a tourist’s assessment of the probability of returning to the same location (Chen et al., 2020).

The behavioral consistency of frequent trips to a place is driven by a psychological need to see that place, known as DL (Hoang et al., 2023; Marques et al., 2021). According to prior research, many elements influence tourists’ satisfaction with their experiences, and many of these aspects have nothing to do with buying anything. Studies also indicate that a factor influencing loyalty to destinations is visitor satisfaction. Several scholars revealed that TS is strongly connected to DL (Hoang et al., 2024; Kim et al., 2016; Moon and Han, 2019). Similarly, scholars indicated that satisfaction is key to developing tourist loyalty (Moon and Han, 2019). This research also established the connection between tourists’ loyalty to a destination and their evaluation of its image and level of satisfaction.

H4: Destination loyalty is positively influenced by tourist satisfaction.

Moderating effects of Islamic attributes on motivation factors (pull and push), IDI, TS, and DL

IA in tourism denote the tangible and intangible characteristics, services, and behaviors of a place that conforms to Islamic principles and satisfies Muslim travelers’ religious requirements. These often encompass halal food and drinks, prayer facilities, alcohol-free surroundings, Islamic dress rules, segregated recreational facilities for men and women, and Shariah-compliant lodging. Battour et al. (2014) define IA as “facilities and services that comply with Islamic beliefs, such as providing halal food, prayer facilities, and maintaining an alcohol-free environment, which influence Muslim tourists’ destination choice and satisfaction.” This research asserts how IA moderate many essential interactions within the conceptual framework. The justification for each moderation pathway is theoretically based and substantiated by existing literature. Recent studies have highlighted the need to explore IA and their effects on driving forces, destination perceptions, TS, and loyalty to specific locations. Islamic visitors may enhance their destination choices by adhering to Islamic teachings in all aspects of their travel (Hassani and Moghavvemi, 2020). The foundation of Islamic tourism lies in customizing halal tourist packages, prioritizing visitor satisfaction, and fostering brand loyalty. Furthermore, ongoing Islamic education plays a significant role in shaping Muslims’ direct and indirect travel decisions (Najib et al., 2020). A recent study has underscored the significance of IA as a moderating influence on tourist actions and attitudes throughout different phases of the travel experience. Motivational elements, categorized as push (e.g., the need for relaxation and novelty) and pull (e.g., location-specific attractions or amenities), substantially affect visitor satisfaction and DL (Battour et al., 2012; Yoon and Uysal, 2005). Research indicates that the inclusion of IA, like halal cuisine, prayer facilities, alcohol-free settings, and Islamic hospitality, can intensify motivational factors, especially for Muslim travelers, by improving the alignment between personal values and destination provisions (Battour et al., 2024; Eid and El-Gohary, 2015). Moreover, a favorable perception of the IDI enhances visitor pleasure and loyalty, with Islamic features serving as a catalyst that fortifies these connections(Eid and El-Gohary, 2015; Hamdy et al., 2024). Research indicates that the availability of Muslim-friendly services enhances the beneficial influence of destination image on satisfaction and loyalty, implying that Islamic qualities regulate and amplify these relationships (Fajriyati et al., 2022; Moshin et al., 2020). These research investigations collectively underscore the significant moderating influence of IA in linking motivational factors, destination image, satisfaction, and loyalty, and they stress the necessity for destinations aimed at Muslim visitors to include Islamic principles in their tourism offers.

As a modest tourism destination, Malaysia can accommodate travelers worldwide. In contrast, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia presents challenges for incoming tourists and has solid Islamic principles that govern its tourism sector (Sudigdo and Khalifa, 2020). Furthermore, two categories of Halal characteristics have been proposed (Battour et al., 2022): tangible and intangible. Tangible attributes include prayer rooms, accommodations, and halal cuisine, while intangible characteristics encompass Islamic entertainment, dress codes, general Islamic travel motivations, moral satisfaction, and the Islamic call to prayer. Together, these factors influence Muslims’ decisions to travel for tourism. Halal significantly affects tourists’ satisfaction, playing a crucial moderating role in both satisfaction and Islamic tourism (Battour et al., 2014). One scholar noted that Islamic tourism serves as a bridge for Muslim nations and can attract non-Muslim countries, encouraging them to learn about Islam’s rich cultural and religious aspects (Battour et al., 2021).

IA play a moderating role, enriching and transforming the relationship between push–pull motivations and tourist outcomes by influencing how tourists perceive and engage with destinations (Maminirina Fenitra et al., 2024). Key IA that appeal to Muslim travelers include the availability of Islamic facilities, halal food options, respect for Islamic cultural values, and a welcoming atmosphere for practicing Islamic traditions. These attributes not only enhance pull motivations but can also mediate push factors by addressing tourists’ spiritual and cultural needs (Mursid, 2023). However, they serve a moderating function, ensuring that destinations meet a unique set of expectations, resonate with travelers, and lead to satisfaction, ultimately fostering loyalty. This integrated approach highlights how cultural and religious factors can enhance the travel experience, creating a stronger connection to travel and modifying tourists’ commitment to specific destinations (Monoarfa et al., 2022).

Visitors who identify as Muslims tend to respond differently based on their assumptions about religious practices and beliefs. The study indicates that IA may influence the relationship between the push and pull factors that motivate visitors, the destination’s image, and the level of satisfaction they experience (Monoarfa et al., 2022; Preko et al., 2021). Furthermore, these qualities may affect the connection between visitor satisfaction and loyalty to Saudi Arabia as a destination. It’s important to emphasize that IA, which have been shown to moderate visitor satisfaction levels, play a significant role for Muslim tourists in various locations. Previous literature suggests that these IA can potentially attract tourists worldwide.

H5: Islamic attributes moderate and strengthen PUSH’s association with tourist satisfaction.

H6: Islamic attributes strengthen the association between PULL and satisfaction.

H7: Islamic attributes moderate and strengthen the association between Islamic destination image and tourist satisfaction.

H8: Islamic attributes moderate and strengthen the association between tourist satisfaction and destination loyalty.

Research methods

Sample and data collection

A cross-sectional survey was used to gather the data, and questions in Arabic and English were created. A convenient sampling technique was used because of ease and rapidity. Researchers can quickly get data when choosing available subjects without using many resources. The 850 questionnaires were distributed, and 630 true responses were received. The true response rate was 74.11%. The respondents of the research were visitors who visited KSA in 2024. Data were collected between January and March 2024. The surveys were conducted throughout the well-known religious and cultural destinations (Mecca and Medina) in Saudi Arabia. The reason behind offline data collection was that it allows direct engagement with participants in real-world settings such as tourist sites. Tourists visiting Saudi Arabia’s cultural and religious sites were strategically chosen to gather relevant data from individuals with firsthand experience of Islamic destinations. These respondents were targeted to ensure the study directly engages with those experiencing the push and pull factors and IA (Halal elements) in their travel decisions. This focus aligns with the research aim of examining how Islamic characteristics influence travel motivations, satisfaction, and loyalty. The selection of visitors in 2024 ensures the data is up-to-date, reflecting current trends and preferences in halal tourism.

As per the recommendations of Byrne (2001), MacCallum et al. (1999), and Saunders et al. (2003), a sample size of 630 was used for data analyses. This sample size was chosen based on the guidelines for conducting structural equation modeling (SEM), which generally recommends large sample sizes to ensure robust and reliable results. According to Hair, Risher, Sarstedt, and Ringle (2019), a sample size of at least 500 is considered adequate for SEM, especially when multiple latent variables are involved. The final sample size of 630 respondents allows for a more accurate estimation of the relationships between travel motivation, IDI, TS, and DL, enhancing the study’s generalizability to the broader population of Muslim tourists visiting Saudi Arabia.

Measurement development

The study adopted the items from the previous studies. This research examines the intervening effects of travel motivation factors (pull and push) and IDI on TS and DL. IA are moderated between travel motivations factors, IDI, TS, and TS and DL. The PUSH was measured using seven items, including the example items, including “To fulfill my dream of visiting a foreign land/country.” The PULL was examined through seven items adapted from (Ermawati and Prihandono, 2018; Tsai et al., 2016), with the sample question “historical, cultural, art, and religious attractions.” The IDI was assessed using four items, including the sample item, “My concern is halal facilities,” developed by Sudigdo and Khalifa (2020). The IDI scale’s α value was 0.883. TS was examined through eight items, including the simple item, “The facilities and conditions of KSA were more than what I expected,” which was developed by Kanwel et al. (2019).

DL consisted of three items, including the sample question, “I would say positive things about this tourism site to other people,” developed by Mohamed et al. (2020). The IA consisted of five items, with the sample question being “Banning of alcoholic drinks by the authority in public places,” developed by Battour et al. (2014). Its α value was 0.976 (see Table 3).

Pilot study

A preliminary study was executed before the main research to evaluate the reliability of the questionnaire. A sample of around 65 people was selected, constituting roughly 10.31% of the overall population. Internal consistency was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha test in SPSS. A Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of 0.7 is typically regarded as a strong sign of dependability, as corroborated by other sources. This standard is well-recognized in social science research. The findings in Table 1 exhibit a dependability level that satisfies this defined requirement. Table 1 enumerates the constructions and their corresponding CA coefficients, demonstrating that respondents effectively comprehended the items.

Table 1 Establishing the reliability of the study.
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Analysis method

The data was analyzed for reliability, validity, correlations, and descriptive findings using SEM, Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS v.25.0), and the Social Science Statistical Package (SPSS). We have also applied the method developed by Andrew Hayes Process to investigate the moderating effects of Islamic characteristics in the different relationships shown in the study’s conceptual model. The normality and missing value tests were performed to examine the preliminary status of the sample data for analysis. SEM through AMOS and SPSS is well-suited for this study, given the complex relationships being analyzed between multiple latent constructs (e.g., travel motivation, destination image, satisfaction, and loyalty). SEM allows simultaneous testing of these relationships, providing a comprehensive view of how these variables interact. AMOS offers robust tools for assessing model fit, conducting confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and achieving precise parameter estimation, which is essential for validating complex constructs and structural paths in our study. CFA was conducted to ensure the reliability and validity of the measurement model, with fit indices such as χ2/df, comparative fit index (CFI), TLI, and RMSEA confirming the model’s appropriateness for hypothesis testing.

Additionally, the use of the Andrew Hayes Process moderation method strengthens the analysis by enabling the exploration of how Islamic characteristics (Halal attributes) moderate the relationships between push and pull factors, destination image, TS, and loyalty. In contrast, PLS, a variance-based approach, is better suited for predictive modeling and exploratory analysis; however, it does not offer the same level of confirmatory and model-fit diagnostic power needed for our theoretical framework. Therefore, we selected AMOS to ensure methodological rigor and better alignment with the study’s objectives. This method provides deeper insights into the role of religion in shaping tourist behavior, which is a novel contribution to the study.

The descriptive statistics were determined following a beginning data screening for missing values and normalcy. Subsequently, the reliability and validity of the measurement model were investigated using CFA. According to Hair et al. (2014), data were assessed for their capacity to match the anticipated network of dimensions using model fit indices, including χ2/df, CFI, IFI, TLI, and RMSEA. Regarding the fit index, the criteria range from 1 to 5 for χ2/df, TLI, IFI, and CFI, and it exceeds 0.90 (Kline, 2015), RMSEA less than 0.08 (Hair et al., 2017). CFA and SEM were used to investigate the conceived model’s structural attributes. Lastly, the model’s beta value was used to examine the path coefficients of the tested paths.

Results

The details of the 630 respondents can be seen in Table 2 of the demographic. Of these, 367 respondents (58.3%) were male, and 263 (41.7%) were female. Furthermore, 23 respondents (3.7%) belonged to the age of (18–25 years), 185 respondents (29.3%) belonged to the age of (26–35 years), 247 respondents (39.2%) belonged to the age of (36–45 years), 135 respondents (21.5%) belonged to the age of (46–55 years), 40 respondents, and (6.3%) belonged to the age of (56 and above years). The 235 respondents (37.3%) were unmarried, and the 395 respondents (62.7%) were married. Of the respondents, 202 (25.5%) graduated from the university, while 213 (27.3%) traveled for religious reasons.

Table 2 Demographic details.
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Common method bias (CMB)

We used Herman’s single-factor test to evaluate the probability of a common method bias (Harman and Harman, 1976). According to the findings of our investigation, no factor had a variance of more than 50% of the total variance retrieved. These findings indicate that there is no bias in this research.

Measurement model

The six variables used in this research were PUSH, PULL, IDI, TS, IA, and DL. The Cronbach’s α values and factor loadings are demonstrated in Table 3. As per Nunnally and Bernstein (2010), the recognized α value according to (α) is 0.70, the most frequently used to check internal consistency. The α for PUSH, PULL, IDI, TS, DL, and IA is (0.913), (0.943), 0.883, 0.951, 0.823, and 0.976, respectively. According to Hair (2009), Nguyen et al. (2019), the acceptable criterion for factor loading is 0.50. Table 2 shows that the PUSH factor loading ranges from 0.841 to 0.656, the PULL factor loading ranges from 0.886 to 0.758, the IDI ranges from 0.955 to 0.591, the TS ranges from 0.935 to 0.717, the DL ranges from 0.877 to 0.709, and the IA ranges from 0.987 to 0.872.

Table 3 CFA model.
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Reliability and validity analysis

The reliability and validity analysis containing composite reliabilities (CR), AVE, and MSV are defined in Table 3. PULL correlated significantly to PUSH (r = 0.372, p < 0.001), IDI with PUSH (r = 0.333), TS with PUSH (r = 0.406, p < 0.01), DL with PUSH, (r = 0.454, p < 0.01), IA with PUSH (r = 0.206, p < 0.01) values illustrated in Table 4. The values of AVE for PUSH (0.568), PULL (0.700), IDI (0.627), TS (0.689), DL (0.621), and IA (0.879) are noted. The CR value must exceed 0.06, as defined by Bagozzi and Yi (1988), although, in this research, the CR values are PUSH (0.901), PULL (0.942), IDI (0.864), TS (0.946), DL (0.830), and IA (0.973).

Table 4 Reliability and validity analysis.
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The research also evaluated discriminant validity by the heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT) (Henseler et al., 2015). HTMT provides a more dependable assessment than conventional techniques, such as the Fornell-Larcker criterion, by contrasting between-construct and within-construct correlations. For instance, the HTMT value in Table 5 between the constructs DL and PUSH is 0.71, suggesting that despite their observed correlation, they remain empirically distinct. Similarly, constructs such as PUSH and PULL exhibit an HTMT value of 0.52, further reinforcing their discriminant validity. All HTMT values in the analysis were below the stringent criterion of 0.85, affirming that the conceptions are both empirically and conceptually different (Franke and Sarstedt, 2019; Voorhees et al., 2016). This corroborates the measurement model’s validity and enhances the structural analysis by alleviating multicollinearity or construct overlap.

Table 5 Discriminant validity (HTMT) criterion.
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Measurement and structural model evaluation

The findings of CFA analysis described a suitable model fit in Table 6, representative values that χ2 = 930.828; χ2/(df = 494) = 1.884, (p < 0.001); good fit index (GFI) = 0.922; CFI = 0.980; and incremental fit index = 0.980. The TLI = 0.977, NFI = 0.958, and RMSEA = 0.037. The CFI, IFI, TLI, and NFI values varied from 0 to 1, with values close to 1.00 and exceeding 0.90, suggesting that the CFA analysis reasonably fit the model. In addition to meeting the criteria for a suitable model fit, the RMSEA value was less than 0.08. However, Standard RMR (SRMR) = 0.040, less than 0.8, suggests that the model fits the data well (Hair et al., 2017). The sample adequacy measure Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure (KMO) is 0.891 with Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (χ2 = 21506.503, df = 561, p value = 0.000). The KMO value is higher than the cut-off value of 0.7, with a positive Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity indicating that the study’s sample size is sufficient (Fig. 1).

Table 6 Model-fit statistics.
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Fig. 1
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Proposed model.

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Structural model analysis and hypothesis testing

Consequently, H1 predicted that push motivation positively influenced TS (β = 0.243, t = 6.598, p < 0.01). Additionally, the results demonstrate H2, which holds that pull motivation significantly and favorably affects TS (β = 0.262, t = 7.108, p < 0.01). The findings are consistent with H3, which states that IDI significantly and positively affects TS (β = 0.146, t = 3.697, p < 0.01). The results support hypothesis H4, which states that TS significantly affects DL (β = 0.318, t = 8.299, p < 0.01). There is evidence to support all four hypotheses—Table 7 and Fig. 2 display the suggested hypothesis’s path diagram. Further, the study tested the moderation hypotheses (H5, H6, H7, and H8) using Andrew Hayes Process macro 3.1(Khan et al., 2020). The association between PUSH and TS, PULL and TS, IDI and TS, and TS and DL was moderated by IA (β = 0.039, β = 0.043, β = 0.084, β = 0.083), supporting the hypotheses.

Table 7 SEM results for structural model testing hypotheses 1–4.
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Fig. 2: Path model SEM results.
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Dotted line = Moderation Path. H5: IA moderates and strengthens the relationship between PUSH and TS. H6: IA moderates and strengthens the relationship between PULL and TS. H7: IA moderates and strengthens the relationship between IDI and TS. H8: IA moderates and strengthens the association between TS and DL.

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Discussions

This study aims to examine the impact of travel motivation factors (Pull and Push) and the IDI on TS and DL, and the IA serve as moderators among travel motivation, IDI, TS, and the relationship between TS and DL. The study establishes that push motivations significantly enhance TS, demonstrating that internal psychological factors—such as the need for relaxation, escape, novelty-seeking, or self-fulfillment—are crucial in influencing Muslim visitors’ satisfaction. This finding aligns with previous studies by Baniya and Paudel (2016) and Khuong and Ha (2014), showing that travelers’ intrinsic motives influence travel satisfaction in many circumstances. Furthermore, Battour et al. (2014) showed that Muslim visitors are motivated by religious and secular factors, which augment pleasure when appropriately addressed. Nevertheless, research indicates that push factors are inadequate in isolation without accompanying pull factors or destination characteristics, especially in religious tourism (Park and Yoon, 2009; Rahman et al., 2020). The significant effect shown in the current research may stem from the particular religious environment, wherein internal motivations are closely associated with accomplishing religious and societal duties, amplifying satisfaction more markedly. The study also reveals that pull incentives enhance TS, indicating that external destination characteristics—such as cultural attractions, natural landscapes, hospitality, and entertainment options—influence satisfaction. This corresponds with the findings of Devesa, Laguna, and Palacios (2010), who underscored the significance of destination appeal in influencing favorable tourist experiences. Likewise, Eid and El-Gohary (2015) emphasized that the presence of religious institutions, halal services, and family-friendly surroundings is particularly important pull factors in Muslim-majority countries. In certain tourism research, Žabkar et al. (2010), pull factors show diminished influence on satisfaction, indicating that in secular situations, individual motives and prior experiences may have greater significance. The disparity can be elucidated by the characteristics of Islamic tourism, wherein pull factors serve a dual purpose—functioning as both leisure attractions and facilitators of religious observances—thereby enhancing their impact on satisfaction.

The research demonstrates that the image of an Islamic destination beneficially impacts TS, suggesting that tourist contentment increases when a site is regarded as religiously hospitable, secure, and aligned with Islamic ideals. This finding aligns with other studies by Battour et al. (2017), Boğan and Sarıışık (2019), and Stephenson (2017), which indicated that the sense of an Islamic-friendly setting significantly enriches the experiences of Muslim travelers. The congruence between the destination picture and religious ideals fosters a sense of comfort and belonging, enhancing satisfaction. This conclusion, however, diverges with prevailing tourism research (Žabkar et al., 2010), which indicates that destination image predominantly centers on esthetic, cultural, or service characteristics rather than religious or moral considerations. The conflict can be elucidated by the prominence of religious identity in the decision-making of Muslim visitors, where adherence to Islamic ideals is as significant as, or perhaps more significant than, traditional destination characteristics. The research conclusively demonstrates that DL is favorably affected by visitor pleasure, underscoring the necessity of providing gratifying experiences to promote return visits and favorable word of mouth (WOM). This finding corresponds with the documented correlation between satisfaction and loyalty in tourist literature (Battour et al., 2024; Preko et al., 2023). Satisfied visitors are more inclined to revisit the same location and endorse it to others, thus strengthening the destination’s competitive edge. In certain secular circumstances, research indicates that loyalty may be influenced by factors such as price, convenience, or a propensity for novelty, even in instances of moderate satisfaction (Sung et al., 2016). The robust connection between satisfaction and loyalty identified here can be attributed to the influence of religious and cultural alignment in Muslim tourism, wherein the fulfillment of leisure and religious requirements enhances emotional attachment and loyalty.

The findings indicate that IA considerably moderate and enhance the relationship between PUSH and TS. This suggests that when destinations provide Islamic-compliant amenities—such as halal cuisine, prayer areas, and alcohol-free settings—the influence of visitors’ intrinsic motives (e.g., the pursuit of relaxation, escape, or personal growth) on enjoyment is heightened. This is consistent with previous research by Battour et al. (2017) and Mohsin et al. (2016), which contends that religiously suitable services augment the emotional and psychological advantages tourists obtain from travel. This conclusion, however, contradicts the study conducted by Park and Yoon (2009) and Rahman et al. (2017), which posits that intrinsic travel reasons frequently function independently of religious factors. The research’s context can elucidate this discrepancy—Saudi Arabia and comparable holy sites—where religious obligations are fulfilled with individual travel reasons, rendering IA a significant enhancer. Secondly, the findings indicate that IA moderate and enhance the relationship between PULL and TS. When venues offer evident Islamic services, the appealing attributes of the destination (e.g., cultural heritage, natural landscape, entertainment) significantly enhance visitor satisfaction. This finding is corroborated by other studies (Eid and El-Gohary, 2015; Stephenson, 2017), indicating that Muslim visitors prioritize places that integrate recreational amenities with religious congruence. These findings build upon previous research by suggesting that for Muslim visitors, pull factors alone are inadequate; the integration with Islamic qualities optimizes happiness. Conflicting findings from secular tourist contexts, Devesa et al. (2010) indicate that location appeal may be adequate in non-religious environments to elicit pleasure; yet, religious congruence significantly enhances this effect in Islamic tourism.

The research also revealed that IA moderate and enhance the relationship between IDI and TS. This indicates that tourists experience much greater happiness when genuine Islamic services reinforce their favorable perception of a location. This aligns with research by Boğan and Sarıışık (2019) and Battour et al. (2014), which posits that a favorable IDI—characterized by perceptions of religious hospitality and adherence—augments contentment, especially among Muslim tourists. This finding contradicts general tourism research by Žabkar et al. (2010), which indicates that destination image alone—independent of religious or cultural alignment—often suffices to predict happiness. The contradiction likely stems from the fact that, for Muslim visitors, destination image encompasses esthetic appeal, repute, and religious congruence, rendering Islamic qualities a vital reinforcing factor. Finally, the findings indicate that IA moderate and enhance the relationship between TS and DL. TS in an atmosphere accommodating religious demands markedly enhances their commitment to the location. This corroborates previous studies by Battour et al. (2017) and Mohsin et al. (2016), which indicated that happiness in halal-compliant settings enhances intentions to revisit and endorse places. Preko et al. (2023) research in non-religious tourist situations indicates that satisfaction alone frequently predicts loyalty, independent of religious elements. This study underscores the significant function of IA as moderators in strengthening the connections between motivating variables, destination image, contentment, and loyalty among Muslim visitors. The findings underscore the necessity for tourism managers to incorporate religiously suitable services into destination offers to enhance happiness and loyalty. The observed contradiction may exemplify the unique attributes of Islamic tourism, where satisfaction depends not just on conventional travel experiences but also on the ability to fulfill religious obligations during the vacation, therefore fostering loyalty.

Theoretical contribution

The present research significantly contributes to the theory by enhancing the push–pull motivation theory by integrating IA as moderating social and cultural elements. Particularly, this study improves the existing tourism literature by analyzing the interaction between intrinsic (push) and extrinsic (pull) travel incentives and Islamic values, influencing the behavioral intentions of Muslim tourists. This area is still inadequately addressed in contemporary research. The study elucidates the role of IA as moderators, providing a refined comprehension of how destination image, especially in Muslim-majority or Islamic-friendly environments, affects visitor happiness and loyalty. This integration enhances destination image theory by incorporating religious and cultural aspects, strengthening current pleasure and loyalty typologies about Muslim visitors’ motivating requirements and behavioral patterns. Moreover, the research establishes novel theoretical avenues for examining religion-influenced travel behavior and underscores the convergence of religion and the tourist sector. This relates to wider discussions on niche tourism, especially faith-based, historical, and cultural tourism, and emphasizes the necessity of culturally and religiously attuned tourist product creation.

Practical contribution

This research offers practical recommendations for all tourism stakeholders, particularly destinations with significant Muslim populations or those aiming to attract Muslim tourists. For instance, tourism marketers and policymakers can leverage push factors, such as religious motivation, alongside pull factors, like the unique attractions of a destination, to create strategies that enhance tourist enjoyment and engagement. The interplay between secular and IA in a destination’s brand reflected in TS and loyalty should not be overlooked. Specifically, services and facilities, such as halal food and prayer spaces, as well as policies like gender segregation, can be tailored to be more accommodating for Muslim visitors. This research focuses on how IA influence a destination’s image, enabling Muslim-friendly cities to attract visitors seeking suitable cultural and religious experiences. It also gives destination managers insights on where to concentrate their marketing efforts.

By prioritizing satisfaction and loyalty, this research assists tourism service providers in delivering experiences that encourage repeat visits and foster positive WOM, which is vital for the long-term success of a destination. Non-majority Muslim countries that promote themselves as “Muslim-friendly” or engage in “halal tourism” can also attract Muslim travelers. The religious tourism characteristics of these destinations are significant attractions. In countries where Muslims are not the majority, understanding these specific IA within the context of tourism can be beneficial for policymakers and stakeholders. Policymakers can enhance tourism policies for Muslim tourists by incorporating attributes that address their specific needs. Strategies may include implementing halal certification for hotels, designating prayer rooms in airports and shopping malls, and integrating education about Muslim culture into employee training programs. Additionally, campaigns could focus on raising awareness among Muslim tourists regarding significant Islamic occasions, such as Ramadan and the Eid Festival. Destinations with non-Muslim majorities can collaborate closely with local partners to better cater to the needs of Muslim tourists. Educating tourism service providers, such as hotel staff, about Islamic practices and norms can significantly enhance the experience for Muslim tourists. Training could include guidance for hotel receptionists on directing guests to the nearest mosque or understanding specific Islam-related requests. By adopting these practices, non-Muslim countries can significantly boost their tourism industries by appealing to travelers from regions where Islam is not the predominant religion.

Implications

This research has examined the significant outcomes of tourism and its connections to Islam, focusing on tourism’s theoretically relevant religious implications. The results contribute to our knowledge of how the PPMT can benefit the Islamic tourism industry in an emerging nation. First, this investigation developed a theoretical framework based on the PPMT through the introduction of IA as a moderating variable that connected travel reasons and DI as well as TS and DL to gain a greater insight into Muslim tourist behavior, which has implications for location traveling in KSA, along with Islamic literature on tourism globally. Secondly, this demonstrates the potential for creating Islamic tourism policies to advertise Islamic qualities in tourist areas. Additionally, the findings presented empirical proof that tourism satisfaction is an important feature that assists in explaining traveler loyalty, and this has previously never been examined in the KSA context. Therefore, the KSA tourism sector should focus on satisfying all visitors by incorporating IA rather than exclusively targeting Islamic travelers (Alhamoud, 2023).

Limitations and future research

The study had numerous limitations, including adopting cross-sectional data from 630 sample sizes with convenience sampling, which could restrict how broadly the results could be applied; additional studies could use a longitudinal approach for more accuracy and exclude recall bias. As a result, no generalizations can be made outside of this context. Data was gathered from Muslim travelers who traveled to KSA. Future research is recommended to be conducted in diverse geographic and religious contexts. Additional research is required to collect data from other foreign travelers and examine the independent moderation effects of multi-groups (high and low Islamic qualities) in comparable geographic contexts. This study used convenient sampling methods. It has a narrow scope for generalizability, but future studies could use other techniques for more generalizability. Future research may employ diverse methodologies and incorporate more information sources inside the sample. This study relied on self-reported data, so future studies could use a cohort study approach or gain information from alternate sources to avoid recall bias. It could help compare the variables being investigated with particular nations. Additionally, it may be thought about introducing Islamic characteristics that have a moderating influence on other psychological theories.

Conclusion and recommendations

Push factors are internal motivators that drive individuals to embark on a journey. People may seek rest, sociability, or an escape from daily routines (Zidni et al., 2022). For Muslim tourists, these internal push factors may include a desire for halal food, the need to fulfill religious obligations such as prayer, and the attraction of Islamic-related sites. Pull factors refer to the appealing aspects of a destination that attract visitors, such as scenic views, rich culture, and recreational activities. Destinations that offer amenities aligned with Islamic traditions, such as halal food, mosques, gender segregation, and alcohol-free areas, enhance their appeal to Muslim tourists (Rofiqo, 2023). This study aimed to identify the factors influencing Muslim tourists’ travel decisions and to explore the relationships among push and pull motivations, IDI, TS, DL, and Islamic characteristics. The research hypotheses and model were developed based on previous empirical and theoretical studies, which informed the conceptual framework and assumptions. Data analysis confirmed the validity of all hypotheses and models, thereby fulfilling the study’s objectives. Both push and pull motivational factors, along with the destination’s image, significantly impact TS.

Consequently, companies in the tourism sector must closely monitor the roles of these push and pull forces, as well as Islamic characteristics, to effectively meet the needs and expectations of Muslim tourists. The findings of this study will benefit managers and marketers in designing programs targeted at Muslim travelers, ultimately enhancing TS and encouraging repeat visits. In conclusion, this study contributes to the theoretical understanding of Islamic tourism in KSA and broadens the global research community’s insights into tourism promotion. It highlights the previously overlooked impacts of Personal Utilitarian Satisfaction Factors (PUSH), Personal Utilitarian Lifestyle Factors (PULL), IDI, and visitor satisfaction on DL in Islamic tourism. This enhanced understanding will facilitate further research on Islamic tourism in developing countries, particularly regarding the motivations of PMT travelers visiting KSA.

The study presents three key findings. First, the data indicates that PUSH and PULL significantly influence the satisfaction levels of Islamic visitors. Second, it demonstrates that PMT travelers are likely to express positive loyalty to potential tourists, with the accessibility of the IDI playing a crucial role in their decision-making, which may broaden the range of locations considered. Third, the analysis reveals significant interactions that suggest IA have moderating effects.

Additionally, the investigation contributes new insights into Islamic tourism by examining the influence of religious attributes on visitor satisfaction and loyalty. While previous research by Wardi et al. (2018) explored the direct relationship between Halal practices and WOM communication, they found no significant effect. In contrast, Battour et al. (2012) identified “achievement” as a particularly important PULL among Malaysian Islamic tourists. In the current study, however, “beautiful natural scenery” emerged as the most relevant PULL for PMTs in the KSA context. This finding aligns with the common belief that travelers seek stunning landscapes (Slak Valek and Fotiadis, 2018). Lastly, tourism offers individuals a respite from work and traditional responsibilities, allowing them to relax in an environment that shares their values and expectations (Yoon and Uysal, 2005).

This research will help policymakers, companies, tourism professionals, and others in the hospitality sector better understand and cater to Muslim tourists’ needs, improve the quality of their experiences, and increase their likelihood of returning to the country. Future research should repeat this examination in other Muslim countries similar to KSA to gain a deeper understanding of these differences. In addition, regional authorities must prioritize the protection of tourists by formulating rules and educating residents on the need to show respect and offer assistance to visitors in their respective regions. Marketers for Muslim-friendly destinations can attract them by showcasing the region’s beautiful landscapes and diverse cultures, and the favorable prices at which Muslims can enjoy their stay. The city’s understanding of the Muslim standards regarding the halal concept is necessary for attracting halal tourists.