Introduction

The hospitality and tourism industry plays a dual role in the context of sustainable development—it drives economic growth while significantly contributing to environmental degradation. Hotels, in particular, consume substantial amounts of energy and water for operations such as air conditioning, heating, laundry, and food preparation, and they generate considerable waste from packaging and disposable guest items (Han et al. 2018; Merli et al. 2019; Verma et al. 2017). Globally, lodging is estimated to account for approximately 20% of total tourism-related emissions (UNWTO 2022). These impacts are even more pronounced in ecologically sensitive destinations like Malaysia, where tourism and urban development often conflict with conservation goals.

To mitigate these challenges, the adoption of green hotel practices—such as using energy-efficient appliances, minimizing water usage, and reducing waste—has become a global trend (Green Hotel Association 2012; Kim and Han 2010). Malaysia, with its rich biodiversity and status as a leading ecotourism hub in Southeast Asia, has taken significant strides in promoting sustainable hospitality. Government initiatives like “Malaysia Truly Asia Green” have encouraged hotels to adopt green technologies through incentives and certifications (Hussin 2018; Sivanesan 2020). As a result, many Malaysian hotels have implemented eco-friendly features such as solar panels, rainwater harvesting systems, and eco-labeling programs (Hussin 2021). Despite these advancements, there remains a need to better understand what drives guests to repeatedly patronize these green hotels—an indicator of long-term alignment with sustainability values beyond initial choice. Accordingly, this study seeks to answer the following research question:

RQ: What are the key factors influencing guests’ re-patronage intention towards green hotels in Malaysia?

Although studies have examined the relationship between green practices and consumer responses (e.g., Han et al. 2018; Yusof et al. 2017; Merli et al. 2019), limited research has focused on the specific behavioral outcome of re-patronage intention (RPI) in the green hotel context—particularly in Malaysia. While researchers such as Kim et al. (2017), Salem et al. (2022), and Han et al. (2025) have explored RPI in broader or international contexts, the Malaysian setting remains underexplored despite its unique regulatory and cultural landscape. Prior research has also been limited in scope—often lacking robust theoretical frameworks or failing to account for behavioral dimensions such as habit and trust (Badar and Waheed 2023; Filimonau et al. 2022).

In addressing these gaps, this study is grounded in Expectation Confirmation Theory (ECT) and Theory of Perceived Value (TPV), both of which are well-suited to explaining post-consumption behaviors such as satisfaction, trust, and loyalty (Oliver 1980; Zeithaml 1988). ECT helps explain how confirmation of expectations regarding green practices shapes satisfaction and future behavioral intentions, while TPV highlights the role of perceived value—including environmental value—in consumer decisions (Martínez 2015; Han et al. 2020). Recent studies have also shown that emotional and habitual factors play critical roles in retention behaviors (Limayem et al. 2007; Khalifa and Liu 2007). Yet, the moderating effects of habit and green trust in the green hotel context remain underexplored.

Therefore, this study aims to examine the relationships between expectation-confirmation of green hotel practices (ECGHP), guest satisfaction (GS), green value (GV), green trust (GT), and re-patronage intention (RPI). This research contributes to the literature in several ways. First, it introduces an integrated model combining ECT and TPV to explain RPI in green hotels—a novel approach not commonly applied in the Malaysian context. Second, it empirically tests the roles of green trust and habit as mediator and moderator, respectively, offering a nuanced understanding of post-consumption behavior. Third, the study’s setting in Malaysia, a developing nation with emerging green infrastructure, provides unique insights that are relevant to policymakers, hotel managers, and sustainability advocates across Southeast Asia. Ultimately, the findings are expected to inform more effective green marketing strategies, enhance guest retention, and support the broader goal of sustainable tourism development.

Literature review and hypothesis formation

Relevant theories

Expectation-confirmation Theory (ECT)

This theory was initially applied in the field of consumer behavior (Oliver 1980) with the primary aim of examining consumers’ feelings of contentment in their interpersonal relationships and their likelihood of making repeat choices. The ECT, created by Oliver (1980), describes how buyers feel and what they do after making a buying. Customers evaluate their anticipations before purchasing against their actual experiences after purchasing a product or service. Satisfaction based on the confirmation of expectations often leads to repeat purchasing behavior. In the ECT, confirmation involves an evaluation of how effectively the green facilities were utilized in the real world. If the results align with the customer’s expectations, it tends to foster trust and leads to repeat purchases (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
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Expectation Confirmation Theory (Oliver 1980).

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Many studies related to the Expectation-Confirmation Theory (ECT) have introduced additional explanatory variables from the existing ECT framework to enhance the explanatory power of their research or have combined it with other theories to compare results and achieve more robust verification (Lee and Kwon 2011). In the hospitality sector, ECT has been widely adopted to assess customer satisfaction and behavioral outcomes. For instance, ECT has been used to understand green hotel patronage by evaluating guests’ post-consumption experiences and their influence on revisit intentions (Filimonau et al. 2022; Torres-Moraga et al. 2021). These studies affirm the theory’s relevance in evaluating how expectation and performance alignment fosters satisfaction and loyalty in green hospitality settings. Incorporating such applications enables the present study to position ECT more robustly within the eco-conscious hotel industry context.

There is strong potential to apply ECT in studying green behaviors and repeat hotel visits. In this research, we tailored ECT to the green hotel context by incorporating green-specific constructs, focusing on how guests’ expectations—shaped by prior knowledge and marketing—align with actual green practices experienced during their stay. Since tracking the same tourists longitudinally is impractical, we used a cross-sectional approach, combining expectation and performance into a single construct. Additionally, we integrated Green Value (GV) and Green Trust (GT) as outcomes of green practices within the ECT framework. Green Value represents the perceived benefits of green practices, while Green Trust indicates the credibility of the hotel’s environmental claims. However, we have incorporated a refined (combined) construct, namely expectation-performance hotel performance, allowing respondents to confirm that the green services they receive align with their expectations. Furthermore, in the disconfirmation belief (post-purchase evaluation), we incorporated GV and GT (as outcomes of green practices), into the ECT framework to reflect how perceptions of environmental friendliness influence the confirmation process. These elements reflect how well guests’ expectations are confirmed, influencing satisfaction and re-patronage intentions (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
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Conceptual framework of re-patronage intention.

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Furthermore, consistent with ECT’s emphasis on satisfaction-driven repeat behavior, it is important to note that such behavior can, over time, develop into habitual actions (Limayem et al. 2007). In the context of green hotels, if guests regularly experience confirmation of their expectations and derive satisfaction from green practices, they are more likely to form repeat visit habits. This habitual behavior may then strengthen the relationship between satisfaction and re-patronage intentions.

Theory of perceived value

We adopt Zeithaml’s (1988) foundational definition of perceived value, described as “the consumer’s post-purchase evaluation of utility, based on perceptions of gain and loss.” This concept underscores the idea that value is assessed after the purchase, reflecting the perceived trade-offs between benefits and costs. Woodruff (1997) further expands this by defining perceived value as the consumer’s evaluation of a product’s attributes and its effectiveness in achieving their goals in specific contexts. This extended view emphasizes the relevance of a product’s characteristics in meeting consumer needs.

Research indicates that the relevance of the dimensions of perceived value can vary depending on the context (Wang et al. 2018; Hur et al. 2013). In the realm of green hotels, the focus often shifts from the environmental attributes of products to the perceived “green value” dimension. While the environmental benefits of products are frequently highlighted, the concept of “green value” is less commonly emphasized. The Theory of Perceived Value framework considers multiple aspects, including energy consumption and environmental impact, but this study specifically concentrates on the “green value” dimension. Functional value relates to the practical benefits of green practices, like energy-efficient amenities that improve guest satisfaction. Emotional value involves the satisfaction from supporting sustainability and contributing to environmental conservation. Social value reflects the positive image guests gain from staying at an eco-friendly hotel. Epistemic value comes from educational experiences about sustainability provided by green hotels. Conditional value pertains to how well the hotel’s green practices align with specific guest needs or preferences. Thus, GV refers to the perceived benefits and value that guests associate with a hotel’s environmentally friendly practices and sustainable operations. We incorporated those dimensions in a single construct and analyze how this dimension influences guest satisfaction and re-patronage intentions, considering the monetary sacrifices guests make in exchange for the perceived environmental benefits of green hotel practices.

This integration of ECT with TPV offers a nuanced understanding of consumer decision-making in green hotel contexts. While ECT captures how guests’ confirmation of expectations drives satisfaction and behavior, TPV adds depth by considering how perceived value (i.e., green value) influences this confirmation process. When green practices meet or exceed expectations, they not only fulfill ECT’s satisfaction mechanism but also enhance perceived value across emotional, functional, and social dimensions—strengthening the intention to re-patronize. Therefore, TPV enriches the ECT framework by explaining why guests perceive confirmation to be satisfying and behaviorally reinforcing in the context of green hospitality.

Hypothesis development

This section outlines the hypothesis development process, and explains how the above theories underpin the proposed relationships.

Expectation-confirmation of green hotel practices (ECGHP)

The Expectation-Confirmation of Green Hotel Practices (ECGHP) assesses guests’ perceptions of how well a hotel meets their anticipated standards of eco-friendly practices. This includes the availability of organic or seasonal food options, the use of water and energy conservation methods, the implementation of environmentally certified products, and effective waste separation. It captures whether guests feel their expectations regarding green practices in these areas are met, reflecting the hotel’s commitment to sustainability. Green Trust is formed when customers perceive that the hotel’s eco-friendly practices are credible and consistently implemented (Chen and Chang 2013). In the context of green hotels, trust is built not just on satisfaction but also on the authenticity and transparency of environmental claims (Han et al. 2020). When expectation-confirmation aligns with visible and reliable sustainability efforts, it enhances trust in the brand’s green integrity. According to Robinot and Giannelloni, (2010), hotels received lower satisfaction ratings from guests when they did not offer the “basic” service of reusing guests’ sheets and towels. Additionally, Yu et al. (2017) believe that more advanced “green” activities exert a greater influence on consumer satisfaction than fundamental “green” practices. The literature demonstrates a link between “green” practices and how customers perceive their value (Han et al. 2018; Trang et al. 2019; Kim and Hall 2020; Teixeira et al. 2020) proposed that “when clients perceive higher quality or advantages from green-hotel qualities, they are inclined to appraise the hotel’s worth favorably” in the context of eco-friendly lodgings. Their research uncovered that solely three sustainable hotel practices—customer benefits, energy efficiency, and environmental characteristics—positively affected consumers’ perceived pro-environmental value, whereas water efficiency and recycling policies did not (Trang et al. 2019). Han et al. (2018) discovered that waste management and water conservation in green hotels significantly impact value.

Tourist confidence is the anticipation of positive outcomes based on one’s expectations of another person’s actions in situations where the outcome is uncertain. Sustainability practices can help tourists connect with each other and establish trust in the city (Chaudhuri and Holbrook 2001). Trust serves as the link between a city’s sustainability efforts and its plans for return visits (Chaudhuri and Holbrook 2001). In case of “green” hotels, Martínez (2015) defines “green” satisfaction as “the level of contentment related to consumption that fulfills customers’ environmental desires, sustainable expectations, and green needs.” Researchers have explored the connection between environmentally friendly practices and customer satisfaction within the hotel sector (Merli et al. 2019; Yusof et al. 2017) and have identified its significance. Recent studies indicate that “green” practices contribute to tourist happiness (Merli et al. 2019; Yu et al. 2017; Olya et al. 2021). Based on our research, it is evident that “green” practices augmented consumer satisfaction and are known to enhance the probability of guests revisiting a hotel. Berezan et al. (2013) suggested that particular ecological practices, such as energy-efficient lightbulbs, recycling programs, and toiletry dispensers, have a substantial impact on guests’ intention to revisit. Kim et al. (2017) revealed that new and innovative features, as well as environmentally friendly initiatives, predict customers’ propensity to return. On the other hand, Ahn and Back, (2019) pointed on the ecological aspects of hotels’ corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives in their study but did not find a direct influence on customers’ intentions to change their behavior. A recent research by Mercadé Melé et al. (2020) revealed that sustainability practices significantly influence the likelihood of hotels being revisited. In alignment with Expectation-Confirmation Theory, when guests perceive a match between their expectations and actual green practices, this cognitive congruence fosters a positive behavioral outcome, such as the desire to return. The Theory of Reasoned Action also supports that favorable evaluations of previous experiences often lead to continued patronage behavior (Ajzen and Fishbein 1980). Thus, direct satisfaction with green practices can independently motivate future visits, even in the absence of intermediary factors like trust or value. Therefore, our findings suggest that:

H1: Expectation-confirmation of green hotel practices positively affect Green Values in green hotel context.

H2: Expectation-confirmation of green hotel practices positively affect Green Trust in green hotel context.

H3: Expectation-confirmation of green hotel practices positively affect Guest Satisfaction in green hotel context.

H4: Expectation-confirmation of green hotel practices positively affect Re-purchase Intention in green hotel context.

Green values

Perceived Value was first described by Zeithaml (1988) as an assessment of the difference between the product’s price and its utility. Green values refer to the perceived benefit consumers gain from their commitment to environmental goals, sustainable expectations, and eco-friendly needs, such as minimizing pollution and conserving energy (Jiang et al. 2019). Green values were found to have a significant positive relationship with customer satisfaction in the context of energy-saving products, as reported by Luo et al. (2022). The greater the perceived value, the stronger the intention to repeat the purchase (Xu and Du 2018). Alalwan (2018) found that how customers perceive the value of an action affects their satisfaction and, in turn, their likelihood to make a repeat purchase from the same company. Within the tourism sector, it has been established that tourists consider a trip worthwhile when they believe the advantages they receive surpass the price they pay for it (Williams and Soutar 2009). Furthermore, prior research findings indicate that the value customers derive from a product or service significantly influences customer satisfaction (Issock Issock et al. 2020). According to research on environmentally friendly products (Konuk2018), green consumers place the highest importance on a product’s value and quality. Research indicates that the value positively impacts customer satisfaction across various “green” contexts, such as electric vehicles using battery technology (Huiming and Yuning 2020), products that are energy-efficient (Issock Issock et al. 2020), and cruises (Ahn and Back 2019). Several studies have demonstrated that functional value is one of the most reliable factors of consumer satisfaction with a hotel (Rasoolimanesh et al. 2020; El-Adly 2019).

In research, Perceived Value continues to emerge as both a causative factor and a significant factors of subsequent intentions, including repurchasing (Keshavarz et al. 2019; Leppäniemi et al. 2017). Past researches do not definitively resolve whether there is a correlation between functional value and the likelihood of future visits. Some scholars (Basaran and Aksoy 2017), have concluded that value plays a pivotal influences a consumer’s choice to revisit a hotel, while others, such as Waheed and Hassan, (2016), have suggested that value exerts minimal influence on a guest’s decision to return to the hotel. In our case, we believe that tourists will experience higher satisfaction and express a desire to return to the hotel if they perceive the green performance to be better than their expectations. Therefore, we propose the following concepts:

H5. Green Values positively influence Guest Satisfaction.

H6. Green Values positively affects Re-purchase Intention.

Guest Satisfaction

Satisfaction is often tied to how individuals perceive the functionality of a product or service, hinging on whether it aligns with their initial expectations (Kim et al. 2016). In this study, “satisfaction” refers to the positive emotional expressed state by guests after they have considered all the advantages of lodging at a “green hotel” (Lim et al. 2019). More specifically, satisfaction levels increase when the actual outcome surpasses their initial expectations. Past studies have demonstrated that satisfaction constitutes a significant driver for continued product or service usage. This is because satisfaction is associated with numerous positive post-purchase and post-adoption behaviors across various user settings (Morgeson et al. 2015). Lim et al. (2019) have observed that satisfaction impacts users’ intentions to continue using a product or service. Several studies within the tourism industry have also demonstrated that increasing customer happiness enhances their likelihood to make repeat purchases (Issock Issocket al. 2020; Ahmadi 2019). According to various authors’ findings, as the number of satisfied hotel guests increases, so does the probability of their return visits (Wang et al. 2018; Akbari et al. 2021; Han et al. 2020). In light of these findings, we propose the following hypotheses:

H7. Guest (tourist) Satisfaction positively affect the Re-purchase Intention.

Green trust

Another essential concept for understanding green consumer behavior is green trust, as it elucidates why a buyer prefers one green product over another (Chen and Chang 2013). According to Gupta et al. (2019), consumers’ trust in green products measures their faith in the manufacturer’s ability to fulfill their claims regarding the product and its environmental impact. Green trust, as defined by Martínez, (2015), pertains to an individual’s inclination to engage in business transactions with those they perceive as credible and environmentally conscious. When a company can demonstrate that its eco-friendly product is safe for both consumers and the environment, it gains the trust of its target audience. Consequently, trust can alleviate customer confusion when purchasing green products. A high-quality green product is perceived as having substantial value, thus fulfilling customers’ needs for an eco-friendly product. The more customers use the green product, the more they trust it. Findings from Gupta et al. (2019) and Konuk (2018) indicate that the quality of a green product positively impacts customer satisfaction and, in turn, fosters trust in the product. According to marketing literature, satisfied tourists tend to revisit the destination they enjoyed, potentially becoming loyal patrons over time (Pérez, A. and Rodríguez del Bosque 2015). Trust is believed to be one of the factors that lead to the desire to return (Han et al. 2018; Martínez 2015). Similarly, green trust can serve as a mediating factor. The presence of green trust positively affects the relationships between EPGHP and RPI. Positive green trust, indicating guest belief in the hotels’ genuine commitment to green practices, can amplify guests’ interest in green hotels and increase their intention to return. When guests are assured that they are contributing to green initiatives on their level, it motivates them to support the hotel through repeat visits, creating a cyclical reinforcement of green practices. Consequently, we suggest the following hypothesis:

H8: Green Trust has a positive impact on Re-purchase Intention

H9: Green Trust positively mediates the connection between Expectation-confirmation of green hotel practices and Re-purchase Intention

Moderation of habit

Researchers have presented various ways to describe habits. For instance, Triandis, (1979) defined habits as “situation-behavior sequences that are or have become automatic…the individual is usually not conscious of these sequences” (p. 204), while Aarts et al. (1998) defined them as “learned sequences of acts that have become automatic responses to specific cues, and are functional in obtaining certain goals or end states” (p. 104). In essence, these definitions highlight that habits are distinct from behaviors (Reyes-Venendez 2018). These explanations also illustrate that habitual behavior is a learned process with a specific purpose. By repeatedly engaging in an action, habits gradually form in procedural memory. To establish something as a habit, it needs to be practiced or repeated a sufficient number of times (Aarts et al. 1998).

As mentioned earlier, social exchange theory suggests that individuals act based on their expectations of what they will gain. In this context, uncertainty regarding potential negative outcomes is considered a crucial factor that may reduce customers’ likelihood to make online purchases (Pavlov et al. 2007). Previous research indicates that to establish a habit, a stable environment is necessary (Limayem et al. 2007). This suggests that a customer’s actions can become automatic when they experience less uncertainty. Therefore, it can be surmised that a strong habit might amplify the influence of Perceived Value on the intention to make repeat purchases. Similarly, habit is regarded as a contributing factor positively moderates the impact of satisfaction on the intent to repurchase. Khalifa and Liu, (2007) investigated how habit influences the correlation between satisfaction and the inclination to engage in online purchases again. They posited that, without a regular shopping pattern, being content may not suffice to motivate someone to revisit an online store. The influence of factors driving repeat purchase intent may depend on how frequently individuals use the online channel.

Similarly, habit has been identified as a key component that influences the impact of trust on the intention to make repeat purchases Chiu et al. (2012). Previous research has shown that habit moderates the correlation between trust and the inclination to make repeat purchases Chiu et al. (2012). Morrison and Firmstone, (2000) asserted that the primary purpose of trust is to lessen uncertainty, where uncertainty is defined as “the belief that one cannot foresee something with certainty.” Trust is contingent upon structural strength and uncertainty (Jarvenpaa et al. 2004). When there is a significant level of uncertainty or ambiguity (indicating poor structural strength), people lack clear direction or relevant cues to interpret the behavior of others; hence, trust plays a notable role in such circumstances. In cases where there is minimal uncertainty or ambiguity (strong structural integrity) trust does not significantly aid individuals in comprehending or evaluating the behavior of others (Jarvenpaa et al. 2004). When an action is repeated frequently, it becomes a habit, as discussed by Ouellette and Wood, (1998). Habits are an effective way to manage risk because they mitigate the consciousness of uncertainty. This implies that habits represent trust at its best (Morrison and Firmstone 2000). Therefore, once a behavior has become a habit, trust’s ability to reduce fear diminishes. Consequently, this current research proposes an argument suggesting habit might obviate the need for conscious analysis of uncertainty (or, in a sense, “mutes” it), leading to a reduction in the significance of trust. In other words, the association between trust and the propensity to make repeat purchases is negatively moderated by habit.

H10. Habit positively moderates the impact of green value on Re-purchase Intention.

H11. Habit positively moderates the effect of guest satisfaction on Re-purchase Intention.

H12. Habit positively moderates the relationship between green trust and Re-purchase Intention.

Methodology

Research design

This study is quantitative and empirical, employing a cross-sectional survey design. The study involved gathering original data from respondents only once during their hotel stay. This one-time data collection, typical of cross-sectional surveys, provides a snapshot of respondents’ intentions and behaviors at a specific moment, which is inherently different from longitudinal surveys that track changes over multiple points in time. Using survey design, this approach contrasts with the use of secondary data, which involves analyzing existing data previously collected by other researchers, institutions, or organizations. The study employed a questionnaire survey for conducting the research.

Questionnaire design and Measurement of constructs

The preparation of the questionnaire involved several steps. A literature review was initially conducted to identify relevant measurement scales, followed by semi-structured interviews with 8 hotel managers as pre-test, which resulted in the elimination of redundant items, a reduction in the number of items, and improvements in semantic clarity and readability. Following this, a pilot test was carried out with a conveniently chosen sample of twenty different hotel guests to evaluate the questionnaire’s suitability as a measurement instrument. In addition to collecting qualitative feedback for improving clarity and wording, we also applied statistical techniques to evaluate the measurement properties of the instrument. Specifically, we used Principal Component Analysis (PCA) using SPSS software to examine the factor structure and assess the underlying dimensions of the constructs. We also tested for reliability and validity, and the results showed that all items met the acceptable threshold levels for factor loadings, internal consistency (above 0.5), and sampling adequacy. These findings confirmed that the questionnaire was statistically sound and suitable for full-scale data collection. The final version was divided into two parts. The first section encompassed predictors of re-patronage intention, including the constructs of ECGHP, GT, GV, GS, HB, and RPI. These constructs were assessed using a 7-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1=strongly disagree to 7=strongly agree [81]. A 7-point Likert scale allow respondents greater flexibility in expressing their level of agreement, which helps capture more precise variations in perceptions and attitudes. This scale is widely recognized for improving the reliability and sensitivity of responses, especially in behavioral and attitudinal research. It also aligns with previous studies in hospitality and green consumer behavior, ensuring consistency with established literature. The scale was found to be easy to understand during the pilot test, making it suitable for the target sample. For ECGHP, six items were drawn from Merli et al. (2019) and Rahi and Abd Ghani (2018), with two items being omitted from ECGHP due to lower factor loadings. The four items for GT and GV were adapted from Chrisjatmiko (2018) and Choi and Chu (2001), respectively. Three items each for the constructs GS, HB, and RPI were sourced from Acampora et al. (2022), Hsu et al. (2015), and Afaq et al. (2020), respectively. The second section comprised the demographic profile of the respondents, including gender, age, type of trip, and duration of stay, aimed at understanding the background of the respondents.

This study was carried out in accordance with the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki and received ethical approval [Reference no: EA-L1-01-FBMP-2024-02-0001] from Management and Science University Ethics Committee (UEC), Malaysia. The questionnaire explicitly stated that no personal information, such as images or statements, would be disclosed, and the results would be reported collectively. Participants were notified that their involvement in the study was voluntary and that no incentives were provided. However, the questionnaire elucidated the research’s objectives and how completion could contribute to policy matters and managerial enhancements. Consequently, the participants provided informed consent for data collection. The data were securely stored and limited to authorized researchers only. The collected information was exclusively used for academic and research purposes pertaining to this article. We took special care to aggregate the data to ensure the confidentiality of individual participants. Therefore, throughout the research, strict adherence to approved ethical guidelines and relevant regulations was maintained.

Data collection procedure

Upon receiving consent from the hotel managers, a collective of 400 questionnaires were disseminated to hotels located in the cities of Kuala Lumpur and Malacca in Peninsular Malaysia. Following training and discussion with hotel staff about the research, they were instructed to provide a questionnaire to each guest at the time of check-out, which falls under convenience sampling. Although convenience sampling was used due to practical constraints (e.g., guest availability at the time of check-out), several steps were taken to reduce selection bias. These included targeting a diverse group of hotel guests across multiple locations (Kuala Lumpur and Malacca) and collecting data over an extended period (February 27 to April 30, 2024) to capture a wider range of respondents with varying demographic and travel characteristics. Out of the 300 questionnaires returned, 40 were deemed incomplete or unusable [88]. In the end, 260 questionnaires were deemed suitable for the subsequent analysis. When using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), it is advised that the minimum sample size should be ten times the number of components utilized in the model. As illustrated in the Fig. 3, the model employed 18 items, thus the sample size of 180 (18*10) meets the required standard (Hair et al. 2021). The G*Power software was used to determine the minimum representative sample size for this study. As per Faul et al. (Faul et al. 2007), the sample size generated through G*Power is suitable for supporting the sample size and power calculations for various statistical analyses. Considering seven variables and priori test, with a statistical power of 0.95 and an effect size of 0.15, G*Power estimated that a minimum of 138 responses would be required. To ensure a robust sample, 260 valid responses were included in the analysis. It is important to note that Hair et al. (2019) suggests a minimum of 200 responses for conducting PLS-SEM analyses. Males constituted 54% of the respondents, while females made up the remaining 46%. The maximum the respondents, 61%, fell within the 30-40 age group, with 28% falling in the 20-30 age range. Additionally, 56% of the respondents held a college degree or higher.

Fig. 3
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Structural Model of Two Staged Re-patronage intention.

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Data analysis tools

SEM, considered crucial for this study to evaluate the relevance of a re-patronage intention model, was utilized to examine the presented hypotheses and ascertain their validity. An additional advantage of using SEM is its ability to rectify inaccuracies in item measurements (Li et al. 2021). All interdependence linkages were analyzed within a single SEM study, which typically results in error-free SEM findings. As this was a confirmatory investigation, covariance-based Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was utilized to explore the associations among variables (Li et al. 2021). The data were analyzed using IBM-SPSS 26 and AMOS 26 software.

Results

Measurement analysis

To evaluate the dimensions of the scales, an exploratory factor analysis was performed utilizing principal components and varimax rotation. This analysis yielded six factors, encompassing the items comprising the constructs in this study. The analysis explained a cumulative variance of 73.34% (KMO: 0.923; Bartlett’s test: p < 0.00), suggesting the appropriateness of the data for factor analysis.

Common Method Bias (CMB) is a common issue in social science research when a cross-sectional research design is employed. We performed Harman’s single-factor analysis using the six factors suggested by Harman, (1976) and Podsakoff et al. (2012). The exploratory factor analysis revealed that a single factor accounted for only 34.15% of the total variance, which is well below the commonly accepted threshold of 50%. This indicates that no single factor dominates the variance in the dataset, and thus CMB is unlikely to be a significant concern in this study.

Reliability and validity

After that, we calculated Cronbach’s alpha (CA) to evaluate the initial reliability of these constructs, setting the cutoff at 0.7 as recommended by Nunnally and Bernstein, (1994) (see Supplementary Materials- A). The CA values for all constructs are within the specified range, ranging from 0.888 to 0.922. Additionally, the Composite Reliability (CR) values significantly exceeded the 0.70 criterion, with the minimum value recorded as 0.859% (Faul et al. 2007). This further confirms the reliability of the items (Table 1).

Table 1 Factor Loadings and Reliability Statistics.
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Construct validity can be ensured by confirming the presence of both convergent and discriminant validity. The standardized coefficients of the confirmatory model, as displayed across all measures, were not only significant at the 0.01 level but also exceeded the 0.50 threshold, establishing convergent validity (see Fig. 3). Discriminant validity was confirmed applying the Fornell-Larcker method (1981), which demonstrated that the square root of the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) for each construct was greater than the correlations among the various constructs (Table 2). We also employed Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) methods, and the outcome specified that all HTMT ratios fell beneath the threshold of 0.900, providing support for the appropriate DV of the latent constructs (Hair et al. 2019). Therefore, we have established the validity of the constructs for future research.

Table 2 Fornell-Larcker Correlation Matrix, normality data & R2, Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) and Multicollinearity.
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Data normality and multicollinearity

Descriptive statistics, such as Kurtosis and Skewness, were employed to assess data normality, and the data revealed that the values were determined below 10 and 3, meeting the criteria outlined by Kline, (2015) (see Table 2). To investigate the possibility of multicollinearity among the exogenous variables, two common approaches, the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) and the Tolerance test, were used in this research, as described in detail by Kleinbaum et al. (2013). As depicted in Table 2, the findings from the multicollinearity analysis suggest that the tolerance values for each construct exceed 0.1, and all VIF values are below 10. Consequently, the analysis confirms the absence of multicollinearity problems among the independent variables.

Confirmatory factor analysis and structural model analysis

The incremental fit index (IFI), the comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), the normed fit index (NFI), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and were all found to be acceptable. The study’s outcome signifies that the model demonstrates appropriate fit when these values are at or above 0.9, which is the standard threshold (Browne and Cudeck 1992). Another CFA test criterion, X2/df = 1.512, revealed a well fit for the data. Additionally, the RMSEA values, with a standard value of 0.068 (Bagozzi and Yi 1988), met the cutoff criteria, as they were below 0.08. After conducting CFA, the study examined the path connections and goodness-of-fit indicators in SEM. The fit indices of models indicates that the values fall within acceptable ranges: IFI = 0.945, CFI = 0.972, TLI = 0.966, RMSEA = 0.055, NFI = 0.938 and. As depicted in Fig. 2, R2 for GS = 0.500, RPI = 0.360, GT = 0.52 & GV = 0.390 is a good indicator of the goodness-of-fit for how consumers perceive green hotels.

The study results (Table 3) indicate that ECGHP significantly influences GV (β = 0.623; t = 9.639; p < 0.01), GT (β = 0.721; t = 11.117; p < 0.01), and GS (β = 0.412; t = 5.546; p < 0.01) at 1% level of significance, except for RPI (β = 0.050; t = 0.439; p > 0.05), which is deemed insignificant. Similarly, the variable GV exerts a direct and notably positive influence on GS (β = 0.373; t = 5.158; p < 0.01) and RPI (β = 0.215; t = 2.590; p < 0.01) at 1% level of significance. Additionally, GS (β = 0.200; t = 2.278; p < 0.05), and GT (β = 0.267; t = 2.921; p < 0.01) prevails a significant and positive connection with RPI. Thus, hypotheses H1-8 are accepted, except for hypothesis H4, which is rejected.

Table 3 Structural Model and Hypothesis Testing Result.
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Mediation and moderation

By employing Sobel test techniques, the study’s mediation outcome indicates that GT (β = 0.623; t = 9.639; p < 0.01) significantly and positively mediates the ECGHP-RPI relationships. Concerning the interaction effect, the study found a significant and positive moderating role of habit within the connection between GS-RPI (β = 0.623; t = 9.639; p < 0.01) and GV-RPI (β = 0.623; t = 9.639; p < 0.01) at 1% level of significance, except in the link between GT-RPI (β = 0.623; t = 9.639; p < 0.01) (Fig. 4). Therefore, hypotheses H9, H10, and H12 are accepted, while H11 is rejected.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Moderating role of Habit.

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Discussion

The study intends to find out the relationships between enablers of guest satisfaction and green trust with the patronage intention of green hotels. Among the 12 direct and indirect relationships, we found that all of them were accepted, except for one direct relationship. However, the indirect relationship was established as insignificant. The model fits well, considering the explanatory power, with 50% and 36% of the variance explained for guest satisfaction and re-patronage intention, respectively, along with the parsimonious fit index. The specific discussion of the results is presented below:

Hypothesis H1 posited that ECGHP positively influence green value, and our results support this hypothesis. Specifically, the data show that ECGHP exhibits a strong relationship with green value, as evidenced by a beta value of 0.623. This finding aligns with previous research (Han et al. 2018), indicating that higher performance in green hotel practices, such as offering organic foods or recycling, enhances the perception of green value among guests. Given that the strength of the relationship is measured through beta values, it is important to note that our findings are specific to the beta values observed and should not be generalized beyond the scope of this study. Similarly, hypothesis H2 postulated that hotel green practices and its satisfactory level of performance positively influence green trust. This result is corroborated by the findings of this investigation and also advocated by previous literature (Chaudhuri and Holbrook 2001). Trust is a cognitive position that is only generated by the strong influence of something that benefits a person or their environment. Green practices are ethical and a responsibility of the hotel authority, leaving a lasting impression on users’ minds and helping build trust in the products or services. Therefore, good green practices, as expected by hotel users, influence the development of long-lasting trust. The greater the outreach of perceived green practices, the higher the propensity to deepen green trust.

As expected, Hypothesis H3 is found to be true in the outcomes of this study. This signifies that green hotel practices induce guest satisfaction. This finding corroborates past studies (Yu et al. 2017; Chaudhuri and Holbrook 2001; Olya et al. 2021). Therefore, ecological practices are the causes of satisfaction, but it is only ensured when the level of practice is up to the respondents’ expectations. This also means that merely having practices in name is not sufficient; hotel guests should be informed about the current practices, and the use of such green practices leads to customer satisfaction. For the repeat use of any service, there should be continuous satisfaction of users in various aspects. However, contrary to the hypothesis H4, the results proved it wrong. This contradicts with the past literature of Kim et al. (2017), which suggested that when sustainable hotel practices fall short of expectations, they do not directly lead to a positive impact on guests’ intention to return. One plausible reason is that guests’ return intentions are shaped less by the mere presence of green practices and more by the psychological perceptions these practices create—namely, green trust and perceived value. This research model suggests that these mediating variables absorb the effect of ECGHP, leading to an insignificant direct path. This insight contributes to the literature by highlighting the indirect and layered nature of behavioral intention formation in green hospitality settings.

Hypothesis H5 predicts that green value is positively connected to guest satisfaction, and this assertion is upheld by the current research. Earlier researchers (Rasoolimanesh et al. 2020; El-Adly 2019) also assumed this relationship and obtained the same result. With hotel services, companies can offer green value addition, meaning green benefits compared to the necessary sacrifice. The sacrifice could be the monetary value or other emotional sacrifice. Green value could act as an antecedent of guest satisfaction. Offering greater value addition in terms of eco-friendly aspects can motivate people to work for any purpose with greater satisfaction. Likewise, hypothesis H6 estimated that green value is favorably connected to the re-patronage intention of green hotel consumers. The current study aligns with this proposition. Past study (Leppäniemi et al. 2017) support the result. When guests who place high importance on sustainability perceive greater green value in a hotel’s eco-friendly services, it positively influences their decision to re-patronize the hotel, even if the price is slightly higher or the location is less convenient. This reflects the preferences of a specific segment of guests who prioritize green practices, rather than a generalized behavior of all customers.

In addition, hypothesis H7 gains significance in this empirical investigation, confirming previous research (Martínez 2015; El-Adly 2019; Han et al. 2020). This means that the proposition that guest satisfaction positively influences the re-patronage intention of a green hotel is supported. Moreover, this suggests that green initiatives influence the satisfaction of customers in eco-friendly hotels, with guests expressing greater contentment with the establishment when they perceive the eco-friendly efforts as serving the public good rather than solely driven by profit motives. This suggests that guests will choose green hotels, and enhancing guest satisfaction leads to consumers being more persuaded to buy the service again. So, the way to increase re-patronage behavior is to enhance guest satisfaction along with the green services. Similarly, green trust is shown to be the highest direct predictor of re-patronage intention (H8). Our results corroborate past studies (Han et al. 2018; Martínez 2015). This reveals that green trust influences the repeated use of the services, in line with the past result.

Research results confirm a full mediation of green trust in the relationship between ECGHP and re-patronage intention. This emphasizes that green practices alone are insufficient to directly drive return behavior unless they foster trust. Guests are more likely to return when they perceive a hotel’s green practices as credible, consistent, and aligned with genuine environmental responsibility. This finding supports Han et al. (2018) and extends the Expectation-Confirmation Theory by underscoring the intervening role of trust in translating positive disconfirmation into behavioral loyalty. Thus, the study suggests that enhancing Green Trust should be a strategic priority for hotels aiming to leverage their green practices to boost guest loyalty and return rates.

Concerning the moderation role of habit, H10-12 hypothesized that habit moderates the GV-RPI, GS-RPI, and GT-RPI relationships. The study’s outcomes confirm that habit positively moderates the GV-RPI and GS-RPI relationships, aligning with the previous study by Khalifa and Liu, (2007). Regarding Hypothesis H11, which posited that habit moderates the relationship between green trust and re-patronage intention, the result was not statistically significant. This finding diverges from Chiu et al. (2012), who found moderation effects in digital trust contexts. One explanation could be that green trust, being a cognitive and affective state, is relatively stable and less influenced by habitual behavior. Unlike satisfaction or perceived value, trust may not be easily reinforced through repetitive interactions unless accompanied by consistent performance and communication. This indicates that while habit enhances the effects of experience-based constructs like guest satisfaction and green value, it may not amplify trust-driven outcomes.

Nevertheless, it is observed that the roles of green value, trust, and satisfaction in predicting re-patronage align with studies such as El-Adly (2019), Martínez (2015), and Rasoolimanesh et al. (2020). However, our study uniquely integrates these constructs within the dual lens of ECT and TPV in a Malaysian green hotel context, providing theoretical enrichment and contextual specificity. Unlike earlier models, which often isolated satisfaction or trust, our integrated framework demonstrates how these constructs interact dynamically—highlighting trust as a mediator and habit as a selective moderator, which together provide a more layered understanding of green consumer behavior.

Implications

Theoretical implications

This study contributes to the existing literature on the intersection of environmental concerns and the hospitality industry in multiple respects. First, it allows us a comprehensive understanding of how individuals behave towards eco-friendly hotels by exploring the facets that require advance studies, as highlighted in previous studies. It also examines how ECGHP influences the factors that drive people’s desire to return to green hotels. Globally, there is limited research on repeat use or re-patronage intention in the context of green hotels. Among the few existing studies, one (Kim et al. 2017) is outdated (from 2001), another does not employ a behavioristic model to explain tourist behavior (Taylor et al. 2017), and the last one is limited in its scope as it does not follow any theoretical framework to explain the eco-friendly hotel perspective (Salem et al. 2022). Therefore, the present study presents a significant opportunity to elucidate why people choose to re-patronize hotels and how to enhance this behavior.

Secondly, this study makes a significant contribution by introducing a new framework that integrates two models: the ECT and the TPV. In our model, we have combined the expectation and confirmation constructs into a single construct called “expectation-performance of green hotel practices” to encompass both the pre-usage and post-usage experiences of hotel guests. Within the disconfirmation belief factors, we have integrated a new construct, “green value” (a component of TPV), into the ECT model alongside the widely used construct of green trust. This integration offers a comprehensive framework that is contextualized to the specific variables relevant to the hotel guest context. By explaining these constructs within established theories and subsequently validating them through empirical research, this study develops a model that identifies the predictors at play between ECGHP and re-patronage intention. It assesses consumers’ experiences with eco-friendly hotels, both pre- and post-usage, using a single construct that confirms the significance of green values and green trust in satisfying guests and encouraging re-patronage. This construct will be valuable for future research, enabling the evaluation of repeat purchase within a two-stage theory framework.

Third, this study presents new findings concerning the mediation and moderation roles within the predictors of RPI. As far as the researcher is aware and based on available resources, no other studies within the realm of green hotels have delved into the moderating role of green trust between ECGHP and RPI. Although the moderating role of green trust has been investigated in various studies, its function as a mediator has yet to be explored. Furthermore, the role of habit as a moderator is common in research on continuance intention, but it is relatively rare in the context of green hotels. Investigating these moderator relationships will provide a deeper understanding of the gap in re-patronage intention, even when customers are satisfied.

Fourth, this study was conducted in Malaysia, as there is limited knowledge regarding consumer behavior in the hospitality sector, especially with regard to re-patronage behavior, in developing countries. Hence, this study adds to the existing research literature centered on Malaysia. Malaysia was chosen as the study location due to its emerging status as a tourist destination in the Asia-Pacific region.

Practical implications

“This research is highly relevant to the hospitality sector as it provides actionable insights into how the Malaysian hotel industry can enhance both service offerings and sustainability practices. Researchers, hospitality professionals, and green hotel operators can gain valuable guidance from the core findings. First, the study helps hotel managers proactively address guest expectations by understanding how various features of green hotel practices influence customer perceptions. Rather than reacting to service failures, managers can align operational strategies with anticipated customer needs (Oberoi and Hales 1990). Second, the findings support strategic decision-making when allocating resources. Managers should consider investing in authentic green initiatives—such as water and energy conservation, waste reduction, and eco-friendly room amenities—that not only improve environmental performance but also enhance guest satisfaction and loyalty. However, such initiatives will be effective only if clearly communicated to guests. Hotels should develop structured communication strategies, including eco-labeling, in-room signage, or digital platforms, to explain how green practices benefit the environment and guests.

Additionally, as the study shows that green trust and green values strongly influence re-patronage intentions, hotels can offer green incentives such as loyalty points tied to eco-friendly behaviors, or discounts for opting out of daily linen changes. These incentives can reinforce guests’ connection with green values and foster trust in the hotel’s environmental commitment. The research also highlights that environmental initiatives alone are not sufficient—they must be accompanied by strong service delivery. Managers should maintain consistent service quality to avoid dissatisfaction that may undermine the positive effects of green practices (Gao and Mattila 2014). Moreover, to improve customer retention, hoteliers can build emotional connections with guests by emphasizing authenticity and aligning the brand with guests’ social and personal values (Kayaman and Arasli 2007; Kahle and Valette-Florence 2014).

To keep guests engaged, hotels should regularly update and innovate their green practices, and monitor guest feedback through surveys or reviews. This will not only support continuous improvement but also help sustain satisfaction and return behavior. Additionally, employee engagement is key—hotels should treat staff as internal customers, provide ongoing sustainability training, and align employee incentives with green goals, thereby enhancing service delivery and guest experience (Heung et al. 1996). For policymakers, there is an opportunity to create enabling environments that support sustainable practices in the hospitality sector. This includes providing financial incentives (e.g., grants, tax relief) for hotels that adopt certified green technologies, and developing national standards for eco-certification to ensure consistency across the industry. Moreover, policymakers can invest in public awareness campaigns that highlight the benefits of green hotels, encouraging sustainable consumer behavior. Finally, given Malaysia’s goal to position itself as a sustainable tourism destination, closer collaboration between government bodies and hotel associations is recommended. This would allow the sharing of best practices, alignment of certification schemes, and creation of industry-wide benchmarks that can accelerate the adoption of environmentally responsible practices.

Conclusion, Limitations, and Suggestion for Future Studies

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationships between the determinants of GS, GT, and RPI in the context of green hotels. The study also explored the moderating function of habit and the mediating effects of GT to provide deeper insights. The outcomes confirmed that eco-friendly hotel RPI is significantly influenced by GT (β = 0.267), GV (β = 0.215), and GS (β = 0.200), while the effect of ECGHP on RPI was not significant. Guest satisfaction is predicted by GT, GV, and ECGHP. GT significantly mediates the connections between ECGHP and RPI, while habit significantly moderates the effects of GV and GS on RPI. However, the direct influence of ECGHP on RPI was not significant and the moderating effect of habit on the relationship between GT and RPI was not significant. These findings underscore the importance of green trust and value in driving guest satisfaction and re-patronage intentions in green hotels, while highlighting the moderating role of habitual behavior in these relationships.

However, this study possesses several constraints that may affect generalizability of its findings. The study concentrated exclusively on hotel guests, without incorporating insights from other relevant parties such as hotel staff or intermediaries, who also play vital roles in service delivery. Additionally, data collection was limited to Kuala Lumpur and Malacca—two major tourist areas—which may not reflect guest behaviors in less-visited or culturally different regions. The reliance on a cross-sectional design also means the study cannot track changes in guest intentions over time. Future studies could expand the scope by including more diverse locations, adopting longitudinal methods, and examining how cultural factors influence the intention to revisit green hotels. Moreover, while efforts were made to minimize common method bias using Harman’s single-factor test, the inclusion of marker variable techniques in future research would further enhance the validity of the findings. Regarding the specific limitations, the study highlighted the importance of treating employees as internal customers to boost their job satisfaction, which is essential for delivering high-quality hotel services. Future studies could explore the link between employee satisfaction and guest satisfaction and repeat patronage behavior, either within this model or as a separate model with new constructs. Besides, the present model did not account for external influences such as social norms and promotional campaigns in shaping guest satisfaction and re-patronage intentions. These factors could be integrated into the existing framework.