Fig. 6: Finite element modeling and validation.

a Geometry acquisition from foot scanning and reconstruction, informed by statistical shape modeling (SSM) coupled with free-form deformation (FFD); b Finite element simulation for the initial contact, mid-stance, and push-off phases during running, employing plantar pressure as the loading condition; c Model validation was performed by comparing vertical compression to displacement and by comparing plantar pressure during standing across five reconstructed models with experimental measurements.