Fig. 1: Ad libitum food intake, eating rate and appetite-related hormones.
From: Short-term effects of high-protein, lower-carbohydrate ultra-processed foods on human energy balance
a,b, Ad libitum daily energy intake (a, absolute in kcal d−1; b, relative in % of resting energy expenditure) was lower with the HPLC-UPF diet (30% protein and 29% carbohydrates) compared with the NPNC-UPF diet (13% protein and 46% carbohydrates). REE, resting energy expenditure. c, Intake of protein was higher and intake of carbohydrates was lower with the HPLC-UPF compared with the NPNC-UPF, whereas intake of fat and fibre did not differ. d,e, Eating rate (d) and energy intake rate (e) were lower with HPLC-UPF compared with NPNC-UPF (both n = 18). f,g, Bites per meal (f) were lower and chews per bite (g) were higher with HPLC-UPF compared with NPNC-UPF (both n = 18). h, Both diets were rated equally palatable on visual analogue scales (n = 20). i,j, During breakfast on day 5, ghrelin secretion (i) was suppressed, whereas PYY secretion (j) was increased with HPLC-UPF compared with NPNC-UPF (both n = 20). All box plots show the interquartile range with the 25% (lower hinge), 50% (centre line) and 75% (upper hinge) quantiles. Whiskers extend to the minimum and maximum values. For parametric data, the mean is displayed as +. Data in the bar graphs are presented as mean ± s.d. (c). n = 21 unless stated otherwise. P values were from paired two-sided t-tests (a–f and h–j) or Wilcoxon tests (g). iAUC, incremental area under the curve.
