Fig. 3: Energy expenditure, energy and macronutrient balances and hormones.
From: Short-term effects of high-protein, lower-carbohydrate ultra-processed foods on human energy balance
a,b, Total energy expenditure (TEE) (a) and sleeping energy expenditure (SEE) (b) were higher with the HPLC-UPF diet (30% protein and 29% carbohydrates) compared with the NPNC-UPF diet (13% protein and 46% carbohydrate). c, Energy balance was lower with HPLC-UPF compared with NPNC-UPF, although positive with both interventions (both P < 0.001). d–f, Protein balance (d) was more positive with HPLC-UPF compared with NPNC-UPF and carbohydrate balance (e) was similar between interventions, whereas fat balance (f) was positive with NPNC-UPF compared with HPLC-UPF. g, Fuel utilization (macronutrient oxidation in % of 24-h energy expenditure) was lower for carbohydrate and higher for fat and protein with HPLC-UPF compared with NPNC-UPF. Ox, oxidation. h, Fibroblast growth factor 21-secretion (FGF21) was reduced with HPLC-UPF and high with NPNC-UPF and decreased postprandially after breakfast on day 5 with NPNC-UPF (n = 20). i, Glucagon secretion increased postprandially more pronounced with HPLC-UPF compared with NPNC-UPF (n = 20). All box plots show the interquartile range with the 25% (lower hinge), 50% (centre line) and 75% (upper hinge) quantiles. Whiskers extend to the minimum and maximum values. For parametric data, the mean is displayed as +. Data are presented as mean ± s.d. (h and i). n = 21 unless stated otherwise. P values are from paired two-sided t-tests (a–c, e–g and i) or Wilcoxon tests (d and h).
