Fig. 1: Outline of the study.

Discovery GWASs of HFRS and HFRS without dementia were performed in FinnGen to identify genetic variants associated with frailty. The significant variants (P ≺ 5 × 10−8) were then replicated in the UK Biobank, and a meta-analysis of the FinnGen and UK Biobank results was performed. The GWAS summary statistics of FinnGen were used to calculate HFRS-PRSs, which were then assessed for their association with mortality and hospitalizations in the UK Biobank. Finally, protein association and colocalization analyses were performed to prioritize genes and identify causal variants.