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Detection and characterization of microplastics and nanoplastics in biological samples

Nature Reviews Bioengineering (2025)Cite this article

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Abstract

Plastic pollution from microplastics (1 μm–5 mm) and nanoplastics (<1 μm) is an emerging global threat. These particles have been detected in water, soil, atmospheric samples and even in naturally sampled organisms and human tissues/organs with potential ecological and health risks. However, most detection techniques are better suited for microplastic and nanoplastic (MNP) identification in ideal media (such as water) and face limitations when analysing biological samples. This issue must be addressed because the minimum sizes of MNPs found in organisms are often larger than those detected in water. In this Review, we discuss current progress in the detection, identification and analysis of MNPs in naturally sampled organisms and the human body. Moreover, we provide recommendations for how to improve the workflows of detection and labelling of MNPs in biological samples.

Key points

  • Techniques for detecting, identifying, analysing and quantifying microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPs) in water samples are more well developed compared with those used for measuring MNPs in biological samples.

  • Strategies for digestion, separation, enrichment and detection of MNPs need to be optimized depending on the category of organism under investigation.

  • MNPs have been detected in almost every organ/tissue in the human body but exposure pathways and the associated health risks are largely unknown.

  • Labelling strategies need to be designed based on a full characterization of MNPs in natural organisms, including polymer types, shapes and surface functionality.

  • Machine learning algorithms can greatly reduce the labour time and cost of MNP identification and characterization.

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Fig. 1: Analytical workflow of MNPs in biological samples and timeline for the development of detection techniques.
Fig. 2: Strategies to improve digestion, separation, enrichment and detection of MNPs in three categories of organisms.
Fig. 3: Detection, concentration and distribution of MNPs in the human body.
Fig. 4: Labelling strategies of MNPs and related detection techniques.
Fig. 5: Machine learning integration.

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Acknowledgements

This work was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42192572, U2106213), International Scientific and Technological Cooperation and Research and Development Projects in Hainan Province (GHYF2025046) and USDA Hatch program (MAS 00616).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Coastal Environmental Pollution Control, Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China

    Jian Zhao, Ruyi Lan, Hongmei Tan & Jianjun Wang

  2. Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao Marine Science and Technology Center, Qingdao, China

    Jian Zhao

  3. Sanya Oceanographic Institution, Ocean University of China, Sanya, China

    Yuanshuo Ma

  4. State Key Laboratory of Estuarine and Coastal Research, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China

    Qiqing Chen & Fei Jiang

  5. Institute of Environmental Processes and Pollution Control, School of Environment and Ecology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China

    Zhenyu Wang

  6. Stockbridge School of Agriculture, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA

    Baoshan Xing

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  1. Jian Zhao
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Contributions

J.Z. and B.X. conceptualized the idea and wrote the outline of the manuscript. J.Z., Z.W. and B.X. supervised the project. J.Z., R.L., H.T, J.W., Y.M., Q.C. and F.J. researched data for the article, and made a substantial contribution to discussion of content and writing of the article. All authors reviewed and approved the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Zhenyu Wang or Baoshan Xing.

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Nature Reviews Bioengineering thanks Wei Min, Giuseppe Suaria, Anna Posacka and Tamara Galloway for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

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Zhao, J., Lan, R., Tan, H. et al. Detection and characterization of microplastics and nanoplastics in biological samples. Nat Rev Bioeng (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44222-025-00335-0

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