Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Review Article
  • Published:

Low-Earth orbit satellite constellations for global communication network connectivity

Nature Reviews Electrical Engineering volume 1, pages 656–665 (2024)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

The satellite communications sector is experiencing a revolution pushed by the unprecedented deployment of satellites in low-Earth orbit (LEO) constellations for connectivity solutions. Innovative technologies have led to cost-effective manufacturing. Lower launch costs have encouraged private ventures to deploy broadband LEO networks targeting market opportunities such as internet services for remote or under-served areas, mobile connectivity, governmental services and communication services for emergency response and disaster relief. Ubiquitous coverage and resilience are key characteristics of space-based communications. However, LEO satellite operators face several technical challenges, which need to be addressed to unleash the full potential of this promising technology. Here, we describe the developments in the field of LEO broadband constellations and discuss the challenges to establish a LEO-based extension to current 5G and coming 6G cellular networks. We also present the advancements that are, from the beginning of the 2020s, empowering LEO constellations to become a fundamental complement to, and be integrated with, terrestrial-based communication networks. Finally, we introduce the activities related to standardization, experimental validations and demonstrations and present our own vision on the potential of the technology to transform the space-based connectivity.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on SpringerLink
  • Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellite field of view over the city of New Delhi, India.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Facts and Figures 2022: Latest on global connectivity amid economic downturn. https://www.itu.int/hub/2022/11/facts-and-figures-2022-global-connectivity-statistics/ (2022).

  2. International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Facts and Figures 2021: 2.9 billion people still offline. https://www.itu.int/hub/2021/11/facts-and-figures-2021-2-9-billion-people-still-offline/ (2021).

  3. International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Internet use in urban and rural areas. https://www.itu.int/itu-d/reports/statistics/2022/11/24/ff22-internet-use-in-urban-and-rural-areas/ (2022).

  4. Yaacoub, E. & Alouini, M.-S. A key 6G challenge and opportunity — connecting the base of the pyramid: a survey on rural connectivity. Proc. IEEE 108, 533–582 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Lin, X. et al. On the path to 6G: embracing the next wave of low Earth orbit satellite access. IEEE Commun. Mag. 59, 36–42 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Daehnick, C., Klinghoffer, I., Maritz, B. & Wisem, B. Large LEO satellite constellations: will it be different this time? https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/aerospace-and-defense/our-insights/large-leo-satellite-constellations-will-it-be-different-this-time (2020).

  7. Araniti, G., Iera, A., Pizzi, S. & Rinaldi, F. Toward 6G non-terrestrial networks. IEEE Netw. 36, 113–120 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Lawler, S., Boley, A. & Rein, H. Visibility predictions for near-future satellite megaconstellations: latitudes near 50° will experience the worst light pollution. Astron. J. 163, 21 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Di Vruno, F. et al. Unintended electromagnetic radiation from Starlink satellites detected with LOFAR between 110 and 188 MHz. Astronom. Astrophys. 676, A75 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Liu, S. et al. LEO satellite constellations for 5G and beyond: how will they reshape vertical domains? IEEE Commun. Mag. 59, 30–36 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Ali, I., Al-Dhahir, N. & Hershey, J. E. Doppler characterization for LEO satellites. IEEE Trans. Commun. 46, 309–313 (1998).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Patterson, D. P. Teledesic: a global broadband network. In 1998 IEEE Aerospace Conference Proceedings Vol. 4, 547–552 (IEEE, 1998).

  13. Fraise, P., Coulomb, B., Monteuuis, B. & Soula, J.-L. SkyBridge LEO satellites: optimized for broadband communications in the 21st century. In 2000 IEEE Aerospace Conference Proceedings Vol. 4, 241–251 (IEEE, 2000).

  14. Evans, J. V. Proposed U.S. Global satellite systems operating at Ka-band. In 1998 IEEE Aerospace Conference Proceedings Vol. 4, 525–537 (IEEE, 1998).

  15. Maine, K., Devieux, C. & Swan, P. Overview of IRIDIUM satellite network. In Proc. WESCON’95 483 (IEEE, 1995).

  16. Dietrich, F. J., Metzen, P. & Monte, P. The Globalstar cellular satellite system. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag. 46, 935–942 (1998).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Julienne, M. China in the Race to Low Earth Orbit: Perspectives on the Future Internet Constellation GuoWang. Asie.Visions No. 136 (IFRI, 2023).

  18. Global Mobile Suppliers Association (GSA). 5G non-terrestrial networks and satellite connectivity. https://gsacom.com/paper/5g-non-terrestrial-networks-may-2023/ (2023).

  19. Shaat, M., Lagunas, E., Pérez-Neira, A. I. & Chatzinotas, S. Integrated terrestrial-satellite wireless backhauling: resource management and benefits for 5G. IEEE Veh. Technol. Mag. 13, 39–47 (2018).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Miorandi, D., Sicari, S., Pellegrini, F. D. & Chlamtac, I. Internet of things: vision, applications and research challenges. Ad Hoc Netw. 10, 1497–1516 (2012).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. El Jaafari, M., Chuberre, N., Anjuere, S. & Combelles, L. Introduction to the 3GPP-defined NTN standard: a comprehensive view on the 3GPP work on NTN. Int. J. Satell. Commun. Netw. 41, 220–238 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Guidotti, A., Vanelli-Coralli, A., Mengali, A. & Cioni, S. Non-terrestrial networks: link budget analysis. In 2020 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC) 1–7 (IEEE, 2020).

  23. Rainbow, J. AST SpaceMobile secures communications with prototype. SpaceNews https://spacenews.com/ast-spacemobile-secures-communications-with-prototype/ (2022).

  24. Zhu, J., Sun, Y. & Peng, M. Timing advance estimation in low Earth orbit satellite networks. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 73, 4366–4382 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Leyva-Mayorga, I. et al. in Non-Geostationary Satellite Communications Systems (eds Lagunas, E. et al.) Ch. 10 (IET, 2022).

  26. Lin, X. et al. Doppler shift estimation in 5G new radio non-terrestrial networks. In 2021 IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM) 1–6 (IEEE, 2021).

  27. Juan, E., Lauridsen, M., Wigard, J. & Mogensen, P. Handover solutions for 5G low-Earth orbit satellite networks. IEEE Access 10, 93309–93325 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Lin, X., Rommer, S., Euler, S., Yavuz, E. A. & Karlsson, R. S. 5G from space: an overview of 3GPP non-terrestrial networks. IEEE Commun. Stand. Mag. 5, 147–153 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Pachler, N., del Portillo, I., Crawley, E. F. & Cameron, B. G. An updated comparison of four low Earth orbit satellite constellation systems to provide global broadband. In 2021 IEEE International Conference on Communications Workshops (ICC Workshops) 1–7 (IEEE, 2021).

  30. McKinsey & Well Company. Leo Satellite Market — Market Size & Forecast to 2032 (McKinsey & Well, 2023).

  31. Kodheli, O. et al. Satellite communications in the new space era: a survey and future challenges. IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor. 23, 70–109 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Douglas, S. And just like that… phone-to-satellite connectivity preps for the masses. Spirent https://www.spirent.com/blogs/and-just-like-that-phone-to-satellite-connectivity-preps-for-the-masses (2022).

  33. Samsung Newsroom. Samsung electronics introduces standardized 5G NTN modem technology to power smartphone–satellite communication. https://news.samsung.com/global/samsung-electronics-introduces-standardized-5g-ntn-modem-technology-to-power-smartphone-satellite-communication (2023).

  34. Lu, M. Huawei’s latest satellite capability launches China’s BeiDou into the global smartphone race. DigiTime Asia https://www.digitimes.com/news/a20220906VL204/beidou-huawei-mobile-devices-satellite-smartphone.html (2022).

  35. Vodafone. Vodafone and AST SpaceMobile complete world’s first space-based 5G call using a conventional smartphone. https://www.vodafone.com/news/technology/vodafone-ast-spacemobile-world-first-space-based-5g-call-conventional-smartphone (2023).

  36. Rainbow, J. Lynk Global on verge of initial commercial direct-to-device services. SpaceNews https://spacenews.com/lynk-global-on-verge-of-initial-commercial-direct-to-device-services/ (2023).

  37. Kumar, S. et al. OpenAirInterface as a platform for 5G-NTN research and experimentation. In 2022 IEEE Future Networks World Forum (FNWF) 500–506 (IEEE, 2022).

  38. SES. SES acquisition of O3b to deliver transformational satellite connectivity to the U.S. Government. https://www.ses.com/blog/ses-acquisition-o3b-deliver-transformational-satellite-connectivity-us-government (2016).

  39. Eutelsat. Eutelsat and OneWeb demonstrate multi-orbit offering and global connectivity solution to NATO. https://www.eutelsat.com/en/news/press.html#/pressreleases/eutelsat-and-oneweb-demonstrate-multi-orbit-offering-and-global-connectivity-solution-to-nato-3257302 (2023).

  40. Rossi, T. et al. Satellite communication and propagation experiments through the Alphasat Q/V band Aldo Paraboni technology demonstration payload. IEEE Aerosp. Electron. Syst. Mag. 31, 18–27 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Gharanjik, A., Rao, B. S. M. R., Arapoglou, P.-D. & Ottersten, B. Gateway switching in Q/V band satellite feeder links. IEEE Commun. Lett. 17, 1384–1387 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Jung, D.-H. et al. Satellite clustering for non-terrestrial networks: concept, architectures, and applications. IEEE Veh. Technol. Mag. 18, 29–37 (2013).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Peng, D., He, D., Li, Y. & Wang, Z. Integrating terrestrial and satellite multibeam systems toward 6G: techniques and challenges for interference mitigation. IEEE Wirel. Commun. 29, 24–31 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Khouli, R., Frank, L. & Hofmann, A. Functional split evaluation in NTN for LEO satellites. In 40th International Communications Satellite Systems Conference 1–9 (IET, 2023).

  45. You, L. et al. Beam squint-aware integrated sensing and communications for hybrid massive MIMO LEO satellite systems. IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun. 40, 2994–3009 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Interdisciplinary Centre for Security, Reliability and Trust (SnT), University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg

    Eva Lagunas, Symeon Chatzinotas & Björn Ottersten

Authors
  1. Eva Lagunas
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Symeon Chatzinotas
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Björn Ottersten
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

B.O. conceived the original idea. E.L. led to the contribution and writing of the manuscript. B.O. and S.C. provided contribution, advice and supervision. All authors reviewed and agreed on the manuscript before submission.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Eva Lagunas.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information

Nature Reviews Electrical Engineering thanks the anonymous reviewers for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Related links

3GPP: https://www.3gpp.org/

3GPP Rel. 14 (TR 38.801): Study on new radio access technology: Radio access architecture and interfaces: https://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Specs/archive/38_series/38.801/

3GPP Rel. 15: https://www.3gpp.org/specifications-technologies/releases/release-15

3GPP Rel. 15 (TR 38.811): Study on New Radio (NR) to support non-terrestrial networks: https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=3234

3GPP Rel. 16: https://www.3gpp.org/specifications-technologies/releases/release-16

3GPP Rel. 16 (TR 38.821): Solutions for NR to support non-terrestrial networks (NTNs): https://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Specs/archive/38_series/38.821/

3GPP Rel. 17: https://www.3gpp.org/specifications-technologies/releases/release-17

3GPP Rel. 18: https://www.3gpp.org/specifications-technologies/releases/release-18

3GPP Rel. 19: https://www.3gpp.org/specifications-technologies/releases/release-19

Amazon Kuiper: https://www.aboutamazon.com/what-we-do/devices-services/project-kuiper

Apple: https://www.apple.com/

Apple iPhone 14 “SOS Emergency” service: https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT213426

AST SpaceMobile: https://ast-science.com/

Huawei: https://www.huawei.com/

IIS Fraunhofer, Mobile Communications Department: https://www.iis.fraunhofer.de/en/ff/kom/satkom/sat-5g.html

International Telecommunication Union (ITU), “Digital Regulation Platform”: article on Regulation of NGSO Satellite Constellations: https://digitalregulation.org/regulation-of-ngso-satellite-constellations/

International Telecommunication Union (ITU), Internet use in urban and rural areas (2022): https://www.itu.int/itu-d/reports/statistics/2022/11/24/ff22-internet-use-in-urban-and-rural-areas/

IRIS2: European Commission, Directorate-General for Defence Industry and Space (DEFIS), “IRIS2: The new EU Secure Satellite Constellation”: https://defence-industry-space.ec.europa.eu/eu-space-policy/eu-space-programme/iriss_en

Lynk: https://lynk.world/

OneWeb (after September 2023 Eutelsat-OneWeb): https://oneweb.net/

ORBCOMM: https://www.orbcomm.com/eu

Samsung: https://www.samsung.com/

SES mPower: https://www.ses.com/o3b-mpower

SpaceX Starlink: https://www.starlink.com/

Telesat Lightspeed: https://www.telesat.com/leo-satellites/

WORK Microwave: https://work-microwave.com/

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Lagunas, E., Chatzinotas, S. & Ottersten, B. Low-Earth orbit satellite constellations for global communication network connectivity. Nat Rev Electr Eng 1, 656–665 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44287-024-00088-9

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Version of record:

  • Issue date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s44287-024-00088-9

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links

Nature Briefing AI and Robotics

Sign up for the Nature Briefing: AI and Robotics newsletter — what matters in AI and robotics research, free to your inbox weekly.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing: AI and Robotics