Table 1 Effects of various viruses on reactive oxygen species (ROS) production

Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2)

Induces ROS production

Suppression of Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2); induction of cytokine storm

Enhances viral replication

Inhibition of ROS production by using antioxidants, such as vitamin E, N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), Nrf2 activators, and NF-κB inhibitors, promotes in the recovery of patients with coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19)

^26,67,68

Influenza A virus (IAV)

Induces ROS production

Induction of NADPH oxidase (NOX)2 and NOX4; suppression of Nrf2; triggering of apoptosis, inflammation, and lung injury

Enhances viral replication

Inhibition of ROS production using NOX2 inhibitors, such as apocynin, and reduced lung pathology in the mouse model

^{70,72,80,137,158,159,160}

Dengue virus (DENV)

Induces ROS production

Mitochondrial alteration, mtROS production, and activation of NOX

Enhances viral replication

Inhibition of ROS production reduces viral replication and inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, IL-8, and CCL5 secretion

¹⁵²

DENV

Induces ROS production

Activation of the interferon regulatory factor (IRF)-3/IRF7/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-1 and nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling

Inhibits viral replication

Inhibition of NOX-associated ROS production inhibits innate immune responses and enhances DENV replication in dendritic cells

⁴⁵

Zika virus (ZIKV)

Induces ROS production

Inhibition of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase, Nrf2, and glutathione (GSH)

Enhances viral replication

Suppression of Nrf2 or GSH enhances viral replication

^50,127

Hepatitis C virus (HCV)

Induces ROS production

Impairment of Nrf2/antioxidant response element (ARE) signaling induces mitochondrial dysfunction

ROS exerts bidirectional effects on HCV replication

Use of NAC attenuates the inhibitory effects of H₂O₂

^{102,103,104,124}

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

Induces ROS production

Impairment of antioxidant defense; upregulation of cytochrome P450 2E1, POX, NOX2, and NOX4

Increases viral replication

Use of antioxidants suppresses HIV replication

^{111,114,115,116,117,124,161,162,163}

Hepatitis B virus (HBV)

Induces ROS production

Mitochondrial protein Sirtuin (SIRT)3 attenuates the oxidative stress; induction of p53 and seven-in-absentia homolog 1 (SIAH-1)

Enhancement or inhibition of viral replication

Use of NAC inhibits HBV replication; knockdown of p53 and SIAH-1 mitigate the inhibitory effects of H₂O₂

^51,87