Table 1 Non-invasive methods for the assessment of arterial stiffness in research and clinical practice

Carotid-Femoral Pulse Wave Velocity (cf-PWV)

Carotid and femoral arteries

The most widely used method. It measures the speed at which the pulse wave propagates between the carotid and femoral arteries.

Highly reliable for central arterial stiffness; however, it does not assess the ascending aorta.

Castelli et al. ²

Brachial-Ankle PWV (ba-PWV)

Brachial and ankle arteries

It measures PWV from the brachial artery to the ankle.

Useful for screening in larger populations, but it has important variability due to arterial heterogeneity.

Dupont et al. ¹⁹

MRI-based PWV

Aortic segments

Allows for more precise measurements in specific segments of the aorta that cannot be assessed with cf-PWV.

It has high anatomical accuracy; however this method is expensive, time-consuming and not always available.

Forcada et al. ²²

Cardio-Ankle Vascular Index (CAVI)

Brachial and ankle arteries

Evaluates arterial stiffness independently of blood pressure, analyzing both elastic and muscular arteries. It is a predictor of incident CVD but is limited in conditions like aortic stenosis and atrial fibrillation.

It has high reproducibility and can be measured independently of BP, but it is limited in cases like atrial fibrillation or peripheral artery disease.

Budoff et al. ¹⁸

Augmentation Index (AIx)

Radial or carotid artery

Uses pulse wave reflection in the radial or carotid arteries to determine stiffness, considering factors such as systolic BP and the cardiac cycle.

Rapid and easy method, requires additional measures such as BP

Oliveira: et al. ¹⁷

Carotid Intima-Media Thickness

Carotid artery

A subclinical atherosclerosis marker that measures the thickness of the intima-media layer in the carotid artery that predicts CVD events.

It helps predict subclinical atherosclerosis; however, it is less specific for central arterial stiffness.

Mozos et al. ³