Immune responses to pathogens and self-antigens show sex-based differences, with female individuals generally more susceptible to autoimmunity and male individuals more vulnerable to infections. In this Review, the authors explore the role of hormones and genetics in shaping immune responses, and discuss genetic and epigenetic contributions to altered X-linked gene expression that affect immune responses.
- Katherine S. Forsyth
- Nikhil Jiwrajka
- Montserrat C. Anguera
