Conduction system disorders lead to slow heart rates that are insufficient to support the circulation, necessitating implantation of electronic pacemakers. Current pacemakers, although effective, have limitations including lead malfunction, lack of autonomic responsiveness, and device-related infections. In this Review, Marbán and colleagues discuss next-generation electronic devices designed to address current limitations, as well as biological pacemakers as alternatives to implantable hardware.
- Eugenio Cingolani
- Joshua I. Goldhaber
- Eduardo Marbán
