Fig. 3: Amino acids contribute to epigenetic and protein regulation and immunosuppression.

a Amino acids provide metabolic intermediates for epigenetic regulation. One-carbon units from the methionine (shown here) and folate cycle serve as a methyl donor for DNA and histone methyltransferases, while acetyl-CoA from BCAAs and leucine can be utilized for histone acetylation. b Amino acid-derived acetyl-CoA is also involved in protein acetylation modification; a thrombopoietin (TPO)-responsive homodimeric receptor, CD110, activates lysine catabolism, which generates acetyl-CoA for LRP6 (a Wnt signaling protein) acetylation and promotes the self-renewal of tumor-initiating cells of colorectal cancer²⁴. c Elevated kynurenine (Kyn) levels originating from tryptophan via the enzymes tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO) and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) have been shown in several cancers, including Hodgkin lymphoma, lung cancer, and ovarian cancer. Kynurenine promotes tumor cell survival by both inducing T-cell death and inducing immune tolerance in dendritic cells (DCs). Methylation and acetylation are represented by red Me and blue Ac circles, respectively. Histone methylation and acetylation are represented by curved lines. DNA methylation is represented by a straight line. Amino acids are in green, and other metabolites are in red. Orange represents receptors. Yellow boxes signify proteins. SAM S-adenosylmethionine, SAH S-adenosyl homocysteine, Met methionine, Thr threonine, BCAAs branched-chain amino acids, Leu leucine, Lys lysine, Acetyl-CoA acetyl-coenzyme A, Trp tryptophan, Kyn kynurenine, IFN-γ interferon gamma, mTORC1 mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1, TDH threonine dehydrogenase, EP300 histone acetyltransferase p300, HAT histone acetyltransferase, CD110 myeloproliferative leukemia protein (thrombopoietin receptor), TPO thrombopoietin, IDO indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, TDO tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase, CTLA-4 cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4, T_R cell, regulatory T cell.