Table 1 Measurement variables and scales for key constructs

Perceived Realism (PR)

Tourists’ subjective perception of the fidelity and immersion of DTT scenes

Wagler and Hanus⁷⁷

“This digital experience made me feel as if I were really there.”

Single dimension

Narrativity (NC)

Whether the DTT content uses narrative elements to help tourists understand cultural history

Self-developed scale based on Reese et al.⁷⁸, Mulholland et al.⁷⁹

“The narrative format of the digital twin helped me better understand the heritage’s history.”

Single dimension

Cultural Identity (CI)

Tourists’ cognitive and emotional identification with cultural heritage

Fu and Luo¹⁶

“In this digital-twin experience, I resonate with the values of this culture.”

Two dimensions: Cognitive and Emotional

Place Attachment (PA)

Tourists’ emotional connection and functional dependence on the heritage site

Williams and Vaske¹⁷

“I feel a sense of belonging to this place as presented in the digital twin.”

Two dimensions: Place Identity and Place Dependence

Environmental Behavioral Intention (EBI)

Tourists’ willingness to engage in environmentally responsible behaviors at heritage sites

Su et al.⁸⁰; Juvan and Dolnicar⁸¹

“After this digital-twin experience, I would proactively reduce pollution.”

Single dimension

Cultural Respect Intention (CRI)

Tourists’ willingness to respect rules and customs of cultural heritage sites

Lee et al.⁸²

“After this digital-twin experience, I would follow cultural behavioral guidelines.”

Single dimension

Cultural capital (CC)

Individual’s cultural resources, including education, aesthetic ability, and cultural participation

Hyyppä⁸³; Garner⁸⁴

“I often attend exhibitions, performances, or historical cultural events.” / “I have an aesthetic sense.”

Three dimensions: Education, Aesthetic Ability, and Cultural Participation