Table 1 Summary of exsisting construction strategies of tooth, mucosa and oral cancer assembled organoids based on co-culture technology (in chronological order)

From: Organoids in the oral and maxillofacial region: present and future

Organoid type		Cell type	Ratio of cells	Scaffold	Characterization strategies	Reference
Tooth organoid	Tooth Root Organoid	DPSCs and PDLSCs	1:1	Scaffold-free engineered construct	Histological and microcomputed tomography analyses; quantitative image analysis of immunofluorescent staining, etc.	Calabrese TC et al.¹⁸
	Prevascularized dental pulp organoid	hDPSCs and Ecs	2:8	Matrigel	Hematoxylin-eosin staining and transmission electron microscopy imaging; using fluorescence microscope, etc.	Liu F et al.¹⁰⁰
	IeAM organoid	ieAM cells derived from hiPSCs and hDPSCs	Not mentioned	Matrigel	Confocal imaging, etc.	Alghadeer A et al.⁶³
	Human ameloblast organoid	hiPSCs and mouse dental mesenchyme	Not mentioned	Matrigel	Calcium imaging (Fluo-4 AM), confocal imaging, etc.	Kim KH et al.²⁴
	Tooth assembloid	DESCs and DPSCs	Not mentioned	Matrigel	Single-cell transcriptomics, histochemical, immunostaining and TEM analysis, etc.	Hermans F et al.⁴⁴
	Tooth germ organoid	hDPSCs and pDE	Not mentioned	GelMA HMPs	Using fluorescence microscope, etc.	Kilic Bektas C et al.¹⁰³
	Tooth mesenchymal-epithelial organoid	ERM and DPSCs	2:1	Matrigel	Using transmission electron microscopy, scRNA-seq analysis, etc.	Hemeryck L et al.⁴³
	Dental pulp organoid	hDPCs and ECs	3:1	hDP-ECM	Using a laser confocal microscope or fluorescence microscope, etc.	Xu X et al.⁹⁹
Oral cancer organoid	OMM organoid	OMM cells and CD8⁺ TILs / CD45⁺ PBMCs	1:5 or 1:10	Matrigel	Histology and immunofluorescent staining, RNA-seq, organoid xenograft, etc.	Sun L et al. ⁶⁴
	FAO	OSCC cells and CAFs	1:1	Matrigel	Immunofluorescence staining, etc.	Chen X et al.²²
	OSCC organoid	OSCC cells and CAFs	1:1	Matrigel	Immunofluorescence staining, etc.	Zhao H et al. ¹⁴
	TSCC organoid	TSCC cells and CAFs	2:1	Matrigel	Using an inverted microscope, etc.	Almahmoudi R et al.⁵²
OSF organoid	Vascularized FAO	oral epithelial cells, fibroblasts and HUVECs	1:3:1	Matrigel	Immunofluorescence, etc.	Yang X et al.⁷²
SG organoid		SGOs and ADSCs	Not mentioned	BME	Proteomics analysis, etc.	Soto-Gamez A et al.¹²⁹
SG organoid		SGECs and mvECs	3:8	Decellularized porcine gut matrix (SIS-muc)	Immunofluorescence imaging, etc.	Burghartz M et al.¹²⁸

PDLSCs periodontal ligament (PDL) stem/progenitor cells, ieAM cells induced early Ameloblast, HERS cells Hertwig’s epithelial root sheath cells, GelMA gelatin methacrylate, pDECs porcine dental epithelial cells, hDPCs human dental pulp cells, HUVECs human umbilical vein endothelial cells, hiPSCs human-induced pluripotent stem cells, hAO human ameloblast organoid, ECs endothelial cells, hDP-ECM human dental pulp derived extracellular matrix, OMM oral mucosal melanoma, TILs tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, PBMCs peripheral blood mononuclear cells, FAO fibroblast-attached organoid, OSCC oral squamous cell carcinoma, CAFs cancer-associated fibroblasts, CSCs cancer stem cells, TSCC tongue squamous cell carcinoma, OSF oral submucous fibrosis, ADSCs adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells, BME basement membrane extract, SGOs salivary gland organoids, SGECs salivary gland epithelial cells, mvECs microvascular endothelial cells

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Table 1 Summary of exsisting construction strategies of tooth, mucosa and oral cancer assembled organoids based on co-culture technology (in chronological order)

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