Table 3 Overview of different studies analyzed in this review

Zhang et al.²⁰⁸

To produce a bioceramic containing Si, Mg and Ca ions which might induce vascularization in a hollow-pipe structure

Ca₇MgSi₄O₁₆ and β-TCP

DIW

BMSCs and HUVECs

Small (rabbits – radius segmental defect)

Hollow-pipe structure promoted great angiogenesis and osteogenesis, enhancing vascularized bone regeneration

Lee et al.¹⁰⁹

To develop a novel design of scaffolds assembling cortical and medullar bone for mandibular reconstruction of large defects

PCL and β-TCP

MHDS (DIW)

NA

Large (dogs –mandibular defect)

The novel design showed great stability and screw fixation overtime, and the combination of PCL/β-TCP showed an acceptable potential for mandible reconstruction

Golafshan et al.²⁷⁴

To develop a printed scaffold with controlled mechanical and biological properties by combining MgP bioceramic paste, Sr ions and polymer in different proportions

MgP, Sr ions and PCL

DIW

MSCs

Large (horses – hip defect)

The combinations of those components leaded to scaffolds with great mechanical and biological properties, inducing osteogenic differentiation of MSCs

Lee et al.²⁶⁰

To evaluate the ossification potential of printed scaffolds modified with bone extracellular matrix and adipose-derived stem cells

PCL and TCP

FDM (DIW)

NA

Large (dogs – mandibular defect)

The presence of adipose-derived stem cells into the scaffolds improved new bone formation without causing immune rejection

Zhang et al.²⁷⁵

To investigate potential of printed scaffolds on the drug release (RVS and SrRn) and differentiation of different types of bone cells

PCL and β-TCP

DIW

MSCs, osteoclasts and HUVECs

Small (rats – mandibular defect)

Scaffolds containing RVS/SrRn promoted in vitro and in vivo promising results, decreasing osteoclast activity and improving bone formation

Barba et al.¹⁸⁷

To evaluate the importance of architecture and nanostructure of the scaffolds in the osteogenic potential

CDHA (calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite)

Robocasting (DIW)

MSCs

Large (dogs – intramuscular implantation)

Pore architecture and reactivity of the substrate directly impact bone formation

Maliha et al.¹⁷¹

To analyze the effect of 3D printed bioceramic scaffolds containing different pore dimensions and drug (dipyridamole) concentrations

β-TCP

DIW

NA

Small (rabbits – calvarial defect)

The coating of the bioceramic scaffolds with dipyridamole increased the bone growth in all tested concentrations, and small pore sizes were more favorable to bone regeneration when compared to medium or large pore sizes

Martínez-Vázquez et al.²⁷⁶

To produce a composite scaffold incorporated with antibiotic (vancomycin) to improve bone regeneration and promote drug release

HASi and gelatin

DIW

Osteoblasts

NA

The presence of gelatin in the scaffolds was beneficial to cell differentiation and gene expression, and the antibiotic was released gradually, successfully inhibiting bacteria growth

Korn et al.¹⁹¹

To analyze the effects of scaffolds pore geometry and cells seeding onto scaffolds on bone formation targeting cleft alveolar osteoplasty

CaP

DIW

MSCs

Small (rats – maxillary defect)

Pore geometry directly influenced the bone formation, however prior seeding the scaffolds with MSCs did not improved tissue regeneration and CaP cement was not degraded indicating the need of improving this material

Li et al.¹⁹⁰

To develop a “hot dog-like” scaffold in a hollow tube structure with bioceramic material as an alternative to improve drug delivery approach and tissue engineering

Ca₂MgSi₂O₇

DIW

BMSCs

Small (rabbits – femoral defect)

The hot dog-like structure improved the surface area of the scaffolds, being beneficial to drug delivery systems, cell proliferation and cells differentiation