Table 4 Volatile organic compounds quantified for resin bed 3D printers from the four identified studies during the literature search [32, 38, 56, 92] Concentrations are given as µg/m3 - micrograms per cubic metre or as µg/h – micrograms per hour.

From: Review of volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from desktop 3D printers and associated health implications

VOC

Study

Emission rate, clear resin, unspecified manufacturer, µg/h, approximate

Concentration (range), clear resin, Formlabs µg/m3

Concentration (range), castable wax resin, Formlabs µg/m3

Concentration (Standard deviation), Formlabs grey photopolymer resin µg/m3

Measurement conditions

Health impacts

2-Butanone

Väisänen, 2022

 

6 µg/m3

<1 µg/m3

 

52 m3 3D printing lab

Nose, throat and eye irritations

2-Ethylpiperazine

Väisänen, 2022

  

4 (4–5) µg/m3

 

52 m3 3D printing lab

Non-hazardous

2-Hydroxyethyl methacrylate

Zhang [36]

Print ~330 µg/h

   

1 m3 chamber

Skin, and respiratory irritants

2-Hydroxypropyl methacrylate

Väisänen, 2022

 

6 (2–8) µg/m3

  

52 m3 3D printing lab

Skin and respiratory irritant

2-Hydroxypropyl methacrylate

Bowers, [38]

   

SLA - 18.1–21.9 µg/m3

DLP - 31.2 (1.5) µg/m3

12.85 m3 steel chamber

Skin and respiratory irritant

2-Hydroxypropyl methacrylate

Zhang [36]

Print −2800 µg/h

Wash - 1800 µg/h

Cure - 1200 µg/h

   

1 m3 camber

Skin and respiratory irritant

2-Methyl-2,4-pentanediol

Zhang [36]

Wash ~40 µg/h

   

1 m3 chamber

Skin and eye irritation, reproductive toxicity

2-Pentanol, 4-methyl

Zhang [36]

Wash ~50 µg/h

   

1 m3 chamber

Severe eye damage, respiratory organ toxicity

2,6-Di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol

Zhang [36]

Wash 60 µg/h

Cure ~100 µg/h

   

1 m3 chamber

Toxic to aquatic life

Acetaldehyde

Väisänen, 2022

 

2 µg/m3

1 µg/m3

 

52 m3 3D printing lab

Eye irritation, carcinogen, germ cell mutagen, respiratory organ toxicity

Acetaldehyde

Bowers, [38]

   

SLA - 10.0–16.3 µg/m3

DLP - 8.3 (1.4) µg/m3

12.85 m3 steel chamber

Eye irritation, carcinogen, germ cell mutagen, respiratory organ toxicity

Acetone

Väisänen, 2022

 

3 µg/m3

2 µg/m3

 

52 m3 3D printing lab

Eye irritation, central nervous system toxicity, drowsiness

Acetone

Zisook [56]

 

245 ppbv =581 µg/m3

  

28 m3 sampling room

Eye irritation, central nervous system toxicity, drowsiness

Acetone

Bowers, [38]

   

SLA - 2.7–10.1 µg/m

DLP - 13.6 (1.5) µg/m3

12.85 m3 steel chamber

Eye irritation, central nervous system toxicity, drowsiness

Acetone

Zhang [36]

Print ~280 µg/h

   

1 m3 chamber

Eye irritation, central nervous system toxicity, drowsiness

Alpha pinene

Väisänen, 2022

  

6 (5–7) µg/m3

 

52 m3 3D printing lab

Oral toxicity, skin irritation, aquatic hazard

Benzaldehyde

Väisänen, 2022

 

<1 µg/m3

<1 µg/m3

 

52 m3 3D printing lab

Acute toxicity, skin and eye irritation, reproductive toxicity, respiratory toxicity

Butyraldehyde

Väisänen, 2022

 

4 µg/m3

3 µg/m3

 

52 m3 3D printing lab

Eye irritation, flammable

Crotonic anhydride

Zhang [36]

Print ~180 µg/h

   

1 m3 chamber

Skin corrosive

Dodecane,2,6,11-trimethyl

Zhang [36]

Cure ~350 µg/h

   

1 m3 chamber

Aquatic hazard

Ethanol

Bowers, [38]

   

SLA - 0.02−4.5 µg/m3

DLP - 7.4 (3.2) µg/m3

12.85 m3 steel chamber

Eye irritation, flammable

Ethyl methacrylate

Väisänen, 2022

 

4 (4–5) µg/m3

  

52 m3 3D printing lab

Skin corrosion, eye damage, respiratory toxicity

Formaldehyde

Väisänen, 2022

 

1 µg/m3

1 µg/m3

 

52 m3 3D printing lab

Fatal if swallowed, skin corrosion, carcinogen, germ cell mutagen, organ toxicity

Hexaldehyde

Väisänen, 2022

 

4 µg/m3

1 µg/m3

 

52 m3 3D printing lab

Skin and eye irritation

Isopropanol

Zisook [56]

 

560 ppbv =1374 µg/m3

  

28 m3 sampling room

Eye irritation, respiratory toxicity

Isopropanol

Zhang [36]

Wash 87729 µg/h

Cure ~1100 µg/h

   

1 m3 chamber

Eye irritation, respiratory toxicity

Methylene chloride

Bowers, [38]

   

SLA - 0.03–16.0 µg/m3

DLP - 3.4 (5.4) µg/m3

12.85 m3 steel chamber

Skin and eye irritation, carcinogen, central nervous system toxicity

Methyl-methacrylate

Väisänen, 2022

 

6 (5–7) µg/m3

  

52 m3 3D printing lab

Skin irritation, respiratory toxicity

Nonanal

Väisänen, 2022

  

13 (11–14) µg/m3

 

52 m3 3D printing lab

Skin irritation

Propionaldehyde

Väisänen, 2022

 

1 µg/m3

1 µg/m3

 

52 m3 3D printing lab

Oral toxicity, skin corrosion, respiratory toxicity

Propylene glycol

Zhang [36]

Print ~350 µg/h

   

1 m3 chamber

Non-hazardous

Styrene

Bowers, [38]

   

SLA - <1.52 µg/m3

DLP - 4.5 µg/m3

12.85 m3 steel chamber

Acute toxicity, reproductive toxicity, respiratory and hearing organ toxicity, fatal if swallowed

Undecane, 3,7-dimethyl

Zhang [36]

Cure ~60 µg/h

   

1 m3 chamber

Unknown

Total carbonyl

Väisänen, 2022

 

21 µg/m3

  

52 m3 3D printing lab

Additive effects from all VOCs present

TVOC

Väisänen, 2022

 

41 (32–48) µg/m3

46 (43–51) µg/m3

 

52 m3 3D printing lab

Additive effects from all VOCs present

  1. Health impacts have been taken from the safety data sheets for each compound.
  2. Four papers were identified from the literature search which quantified VOC emissions from resin-based 3D printers. Additional papers were identified that reported TVOC emission peaks and factors impacting the emissions, though these did not include tabulated data.
  3. SLA stereolithography 3D printer used, DLP digital light processing.
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