Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Article
  • Published:

Paternal exposure to hydrocarbon solvents in the workplace and cancer risk in children and adolescents

Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology (2026)Cite this article

Abstract

Background

According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer, certain hydrocarbons are known or suspected carcinogens.

Objective

Our study aimed to estimate cancer risks in children and adolescents associated with paternal exposure to groups of aliphatic/alicyclic, aromatic, and chlorinated hydrocarbons, and the individual chemicals, toluene, methylene chloride, trichloroethylene, and 1,1,1-trichloroethane, from 3 months preconception to birth.

Methods

For this population-based case-control study of Danish children and adolescents (born 1968–2013) < 20 years of age when diagnosed with cancer 1968–2016, 10,442 cancer cases were matched to 261,050 cancer-free controls (25:1 matching ratio by sex and birth year). Paternal occupational exposure to hydrocarbons was generated by job-exposure matrices to span the time 3 months before conception until the child’s birthdate. We employed unconditional logistic regression to estimate cancer risks in children and adolescents whose fathers were exposed to hydrocarbons, compared to those born to unexposed employed fathers and examined associations by exposure status (any or high/low vs. unexposed).

Results

We found consistent associations for several hydrocarbon solvents and glioma, acute myeloid leukemia (AML), and osteosarcoma in children and adolescents. The risk of glioma was highest in children and adolescents whose fathers were highly exposed to chlorinated hydrocarbons (low exposure: adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR): 1.24; 95% Confidence Interval (CI): 0.88, 1.74; high exposure: aOR: 1.68; 95% CI: 1.10, 2.57), while AML risk was increased when fathers were highly exposed to aliphatic/alicyclic hydrocarbons (low: aOR: 1.08; 95% CI: 0.68, 1.71; high: aOR: 1.87; 95% CI: 1.25, 2.78). The risk of osteosarcoma increased in children and adolescents with fathers highly exposed to 1,1,1-trichloroethane (low: aOR: 1.27; 95% CI: 0.65, 2.45; high: aOR: 2.14; 95% CI: 1.20, 3.82).

Significance

Our findings in Denmark suggest that paternal hydrocarbon exposure in the preconception and pregnancy periods may increase the risk of certain cancers in their children and adolescents.

Impact

This study comprehensively evaluates paternal occupational exposure to solvents in relation to childhood cancer using nationwide registry data. By leveraging high-quality Danish occupational histories and robust exposure assessment methods, we contribute to narrowing the research gap in paternal environmental contributions to early-life carcinogenesis. Our findings provide new insights into preconception paternal risk factors and highlight the need for future prevention strategies.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on SpringerLink
  • Instant access to the full article PDF.

USD 39.95

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Fig. 1: Plots show adjusted log odds and corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs; error bars) of childhood cancer subtypes associated with higher and lower paternal occupational exposure to hydrocarbon groups.
Fig. 2: Plots show adjusted log odds and corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CIs; error bars) of childhood cancer subtypes associated with higher and lower paternal occupational exposure to individual hydrocarbons.

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are not publicly available and cannot be shared due to legal and ethical restrictions under the EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).

References

  1. Kyu HH, Stein CE, Pinto CB, Rakovac I, Weber MW, Purnat TD, et al. Causes of death among children aged 5–14 years in the WHO European Region: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2018;2:321–337.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Grabas MR, Kjaer SK, Frederiksen MH, Winther JF, Erdmann F, Dehlendorff C, et al. Incidence and time trends of childhood cancer in Denmark, 1943–2014. Acta Oncol. 2020;59:588–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Colt JS, Blair A. Parental occupational exposures and risk of childhood cancer. Environ Health Perspect. 1998;106:909–25.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. Grover MM, Jenkins TG. Transgenerational epigenetics: a window into paternal health influences on offspring. Urol Clin North Am. 2020;47:219–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Gillman MW. Developmental origins of health and disease. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:1848.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Coghe F, Fanni D, Gerosa C, Ravarino A, Mureddu M, Cerrone G, et al. The role of fetal programming in human carcinogenesis—may the Barker hypothesis explain interindividual variability in susceptibility to cancer insurgence and progression? Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2022;26:3585–92.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Heck JE, Wu J, Lombardi C, Qiu J, Meyers TJ, Wilhelm M, et al. Childhood cancer and traffic-related air pollution exposure in pregnancy and early life. Environ Health Perspect. 2013;121:1385–91.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. von Ehrenstein OS, Heck JE, Park AS, Cockburn M, Escobedo L, Ritz B. In Utero and early-life exposure to ambient air toxics and childhood brain tumors: a population-based case–control study in California, USA. Environ Health Perspect. 2016;124:1093–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Greaves M. A causal mechanism for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Nat Rev Cancer. 2018;18:471–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Wiemels J, Cazzaniga G, Daniotti M, Eden O, Addison G, Masera G, et al. Prenatal origin of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in children. Lancet. 1999;354:1499–503.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene, and some other chlorinated agents. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum. 2014;106:1–512.

  12. Ware GW. Reviews of environmental contamination and toxicology: continuation of residue reviews Springer; New York, NY; 1988. p. 189–201.

  13. International Agency for Research on Cancer. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane and four other industrial chemicals. IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans. vol. 130, 2022.

  14. International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Monographs. Perfluorooctanoic Acid, Tetrafluoroethylene, Dichloromethane, 1,2-Dichloropropane, and 1,3-Propane Sultone, IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans. vol. 110, 2016.

  15. Nakai N, Murata M, Nagahama M, Hirase T, Tanaka M, Fujikawa T, et al. Oxidative DNA damage induced by toluene is involved in its male reproductive toxicity. Free Radic Res. 2003;37:69–76.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Beliles RP. Concordance across species in the reproductive and developmental toxicity of tetrachloroethylene. Toxicol Ind Health. 2002;18:91–106.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Tabrez S, Ahmad M. Toxicity, biomarkers, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of trichloroethylene and its metabolites: a review. J Environ Sci Health C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev. 2009;27:178–96.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Gocke E, King M-T, Eckhardt K, Wild D. Mutagenicity of cosmetics ingredients licensed by the European Communities. Mutat Res. 1981;90:91–109.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Metayer C, Scelo G, Kang AY, Gunier RB, Reinier K, Lea S, et al. A task-based assessment of parental occupational exposure to organic solvents and other compounds and the risk of childhood leukemia in California. Environ Res. 2016;151:174–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Reid A, Glass DC, Bailey HD, Milne E, Armstrong BK, Alvaro F, et al. Parental occupational exposure to exhausts, solvents, glues and paints, and risk of childhood leukemia. Cancer Causes Control. 2011;22:1575–85.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Shu XO, Stewart P, Wen W-Q, Han D, Potter JD, Buckley JD, et al. Parental occupational exposure to hydrocarbons and risk of acute lymphocytic leukemia in offspring. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 1999;8:783–91.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Miligi L, Benvenuti A, Mattioli S, Salvan A, Tozzi GA, Ranucci A, et al. Risk of childhood leukaemia and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma after parental occupational exposure to solvents and other agents: the SETIL Study. Occup Environ Med. 2013;70:648–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Rossides M, Kampitsi C-E, Talbäck M, Mogensen H, Wiebert P, Feychting M, et al. Risk of cancer in children of parents occupationally exposed to hydrocarbon solvents and engine exhaust fumes: a register-based nested case–control study from Sweden (1960–2015). Environ Health Perspect. 2022;130:077002.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. De Roos AJ, Olshan AF, Teschke K, Poole C, Savitz DA, Blatt J, et al. Parental occupational exposures to chemicals and incidence of neuroblastoma in offspring. Am J Epidemiol. 2001;154:106–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Spitz MR, Johnson CC. Neuroblastoma and paternal occupation: a case-control analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 1985;121:924–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Bunin GR, Nass CC, Kramer S, Meadows AT. Parental occupation and Wilms’ tumor: results of a case-control study. Cancer Res. 1989;49:725–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Peters S, Glass DC, Greenop KR, Armstrong BK, Kirby M, Milne E, et al. Childhood brain tumours: associations with parental occupational exposure to solvents. Br J Cancer. 2014;111:998–1003.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Hall C, Hansen J, Olsen J, He D, von Ehrenstein OS, Ritz B, et al. Parental occupation and childhood germ cell tumors: a case–control study in Denmark, 1968–2016. Cancer Causes Control. 2021;32:827–36.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Volk J, Heck JE, Schmiegelow K, Hansen J. Risk of selected childhood cancers and parental employment in painting and printing industries: a register-based case-control study in Denmark 1968–2015. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2019;45:475.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Omidakhsh N, Hansen J, Ritz B, Coleman AL, McKean-Cowdin R, Olsen J, et al. Parental occupation and risk of childhood retinoblastoma in Denmark. J Occup Environ Med. 2021;63:256.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Pedersen CB. The Danish civil registration system. Scand J Public Health. 2011;39:22–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Gjerstorff ML. The Danish Cancer Registry. Scand J Public Health. 2011;39:42–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Hansen J, Lassen CF. The supplementary pension fund register. Scand J Public Health. 2011;39:99–102.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Bliddal M, Broe A, Pottegård A, Olsen J, Langhoff-Roos J. The Danish medical birth register. Eur J Epidemiol. 2018;33:27–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Omidakhsh N, Hansen J, Ritz B, Olsen J, Heck JE. High parental occupational social contact and risk of childhood hematopoietic, brain and bone cancers. Cancer Epidemiol. 2019;62:101575–101575.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Contreras ZA, Hansen J, Ritz B, Olsen J, Yu F, Heck JE. Parental age and childhood cancer risk: a Danish population-based registry study. Cancer Epidemiol. 2017;49:202–15.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Birch JM, Marsden HB. A classification scheme for childhood cancer. Int J Cancer. 1987;40:620–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Steliarova-Foucher E, Stiller C, Lacour B, Kaatsch P. International classification of childhood cancer. Cancer. 2005;103:1457–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Ostrom QT, de Blank PM, Kruchko C, Petersen CM, Liao P, Finlay JL, et al. Alex’s Lemonade Stand Foundation infant and childhood primary brain and central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2007–11. Neuro Oncol. 2015;16:x1–x36.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Hall C, Hansen J, von Ehrenstein OS, He D, Olsen J, Ritz B, et al. Occupational livestock or animal dust exposure and offspring cancer risk in Denmark, 1968–2016. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2020;93:659–68.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. United Nations Statistical Division. International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC). United Nations Publications, 2008.

  42. Kauppinen T, Heikkilä P, Plato N, Woldbæk T, Lenvik K, Hansen J, et al. Construction of job-exposure matrices for the Nordic occupational cancer study (NOCCA). Acta Oncol. 2009;48:791–800.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Heck JE, He D, Contreras ZA, Ritz B, Olsen J, Hansen J. Parental occupational exposure to benzene and the risk of childhood and adolescent acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: a population-based study. Occup Environ Med. 2019;76:527–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  44. Kauppinen T, Uuksulainen S, Saalo A, Mäkinen I, Pukkala E. Use of the Finnish information system on occupational exposure (FINJEM) in epidemiologic, surveillance, and other applications. Ann Occup Hyg. 2014;58:380–96.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Clermont Y. Kinetics of spermatogenesis in mammals: seminiferous epithelium cycle and spermatogonial renewal. Physiol Rev. 1972;52:198–236.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Shrestha N. Application of the binary logistic regression model to assess the likelihood of being overweight. Am J Theor Appl Stat. 2019;8:18–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Omidakhsh N, Bunin GR, Ganguly A, Ritz B, Kennedy N, von Ehrenstein OS, et al. Parental occupational exposures and the risk of childhood sporadic retinoblastoma: a report from the Children’s Oncology Group. Occup Environ Med. 2018;75:205–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Heck JE, Contreras ZA, Park AS, Davidson TB, Cockburn M, Ritz B. Smoking in pregnancy and risk of cancer among young children: a population-based study. Int J Cancer. 2016;139:613–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. He D, Huang X, Arah OA, Walker DI, Jones DP, Ritz B, et al. A prediction model for classifying maternal pregnancy smoking using California state birth certificate information. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2024;38:102–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Feychting M, Plato N, Nise G, Ahlbom A. Paternal occupational exposures and childhood cancer. Environ Health Perspect. 2001;109:193–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Ruder AM, Yiin JH, Waters MA, Carreón T, Hein MJ, Butler MA, et al. The Upper Midwest Health Study: Gliomas and Occupational Exposure to Chlorinated Solvents. Occup Environ Med. 2013;70:73–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Neta G, Stewart PA, Rajaraman P, Hein MJ, Waters MA, Purdue MP, et al. Occupational exposure to chlorinated solvents and risks of glioma and meningioma in adults. Occup Environ Med. 2012;69:793–801.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Muskens IS, Zhang C, de Smith AJ, Biegel JA, Walsh KM, Wiemels JL. Germline genetic landscape of pediatric central nervous system tumors. Neuro Oncol. 2019;21:1376–88.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. Lazarov D, Waldron HA, Pejin D. Acute myeloid leukaemia and exposure to organic solvents—a case-control study. Eur J Epidemiol. 2000;16:295–301.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Talibov M, Lehtinen-Jacks S, Martinsen JI, Kjærheim K, Lynge E, Sparén P et al. Occupational exposure to solvents and acute myeloid leukemia: a population-based, case-control study in four Nordic countries. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2014;40:511–7.

  56. Bolouri H, Farrar JE, Triche JrT, Ries RE, Lim EL, Alonzo TA, et al. The molecular landscape of pediatric acute myeloid leukemia reveals recurrent structural alterations and age-specific mutational interactions. Nat Med. 2018;24:103–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Pyatt D, Hays S. A review of the potential association between childhood leukemia and benzene. Chem Biol Interact. 2010;184:151–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Porter CC. Germline mutations associated with leukemias. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2016;2016:302–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Abdolahi A, van Wijngaarden E, McClean MD, Herrick RF, Allen JG, Ganguly A, et al. A case-control study of paternal occupational exposures and the risk of childhood sporadic bilateral retinoblastoma. Occup Environ Med. 2013;70:372–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  60. Zhu X, Dunn JM, Phillips RA, Goddard AD, Paton KE, Backer A, et al. Preferential germline mutation of the paternal allele in retinoblastoma. Nature. 1989;340:312–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Wilkins JR, Sinks TH. Occupational exposures among fathers of children with Wilms’ tumor. J Occup Med. 1984;26:427–35.

  62. Wilkins JR, Sinks TH. Paternal occupation and Wilms’ tumour in offspring. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1984;38:7–11.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Kantor AF, Curnen M, Meigs JW, Flannery JT. Occupations of fathers of patients with Wilms’s tumour. J Epidemiol Community Health. 1979;33:253–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  64. Knudson JrAG. Strons LC Mutation and cancer: a model for Wilms’ tumor of the kidney. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1972;48:313–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. O’Leary LM, Hicks AM, Peters JM, London S. Parental occupational exposures and risk of childhood cancer: a review. Am J Ind Med. 1991;20:17–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Huff V, Meadows A, Riccardi V, Strong LC, Saunders G. Parental origin of de novo constitutional deletions of chromosomal band 11p13. Am J Hum Genet. 1990;47:155.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Olson J, Breslow N, Beckwith J. Wilms’ tumour and parental age: a report from the National Wilms’ Tumour Study. Br J Cancer. 1993;67:813–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Buckley JD, Sather H, Ruccione K, Rogers PC, Haas JE, Henderson BE, et al. A case-control study of risk factors for hepatoblastoma. A report from the Children's Cancer Study Group. Cancer. 1989;64:1169–76.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Janitz AE, Ramachandran G, Tomlinson GE, Krailo M, Richardson M, Spector L. Maternal and paternal occupational exposures and hepatoblastoma: results from the HOPE study through the Children’s Oncology Group. J Exposure Sci Environ Epidemiol. 2017;27:359–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Procházková J, Kabátková M, Bryja V, Umannová L, Bernatík O, Kozubík A, et al. The interplay of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor and β-catenin alters both AhR-dependent transcription and Wnt/β-catenin signaling in liver progenitors. Toxicol Sci. 2011;122:349–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Ohura T, Morita M, Makino M, Amagai T, Shimoi K. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor-mediated effects of chlorinated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Chem Res Toxicol. 2007;20:1237–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Perepechaeva ML, Grishanova AY. The role of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) in brain tumors. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21:2863.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  73. Yang A, Sisson R, Gupta A, Tiao G, Geller JI. Germline APC mutations in hepatoblastoma. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2018;65:e26892.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Kumar S. Occupational, environmental and lifestyle factors associated with spontaneous abortion. Reprod Sci. 2011;18:915–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Taskinen H, Lindbohm M-L, Sallmén M. Occupational exposure to chemicals and reproductive health. In: Reproductive and developmental toxicology. Elsevier; San Diego, California; 2011. p. 949–59.

  76. Lindbohm M-L, Hemminki K, Bonhomme MG, Anttila A, Rantala K, Heikkilä P, et al. Effects of paternal occupational exposure on spontaneous abortions. Am J Public Health. 1991;81:1029–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Daniell W, Vaughan T. Paternal employment in solvent-related occupations and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Occup Environ Med. 1988;45:193–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Lindbohm M-L. Effects of parental exposure to solvents on pregnancy outcome. J Occup Environ Med. 1995;37:908–14.

  79. Kehm RD, Spector LG, Poynter JN, Vock DM, Osypuk TL. Socioeconomic status and childhood cancer incidence: a population-based multilevel analysis. Am J Epidemiol. 2018;187:982–91.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  80. Hjalgrim LL, Rostgaard K, Schmiegelow K, Söderhäll S, Kolmannskog S, Vettenranta K, et al. Age-and sex-specific incidence of childhood leukemia by immunophenotype in the Nordic countries. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003;95:1539–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Skaga E, Trewin-Nybråten CB, Niehusmann P, Johannesen TB, Marienhagen K, Oltedal L, et al. Stable glioma incidence and increased patient survival over the past two decades in Norway: a nationwide registry-based cohort study. Acta Oncol. 2024;63:24970.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Ms. Yixin Chen was partially supported by the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, Grant No. T32CA009142.

Funding

This work was supported by grants from the US National Institutes of Health (Grant # R21CA175959, R03ES021643); Ms. Yixin Chen was partially supported by the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, Grant T32CA009142.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Epidemiology, UCLA Fielding School of Public Health, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Yixin Chen, Chuanjie Deng, Zuo-feng Zhang, Beate R. Ritz & Julia E. Heck

  2. Danish Cancer Institute, Danish Cancer Society, Copenhagen, Denmark

    Johnni Hansen

  3. Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Beate R. Ritz

  4. College of Health and Public Service, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA

    Julia E. Heck

Authors
  1. Yixin Chen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Johnni Hansen
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Chuanjie Deng
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Zuo-feng Zhang
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Beate R. Ritz
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Julia E. Heck
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Author YC conducted the study analysis and prepared the manuscript. CD reviewed the analytical code and helped prepare the manuscript. BR advised on study analysis and reviewed the manuscript. JH advised on the investigation and methodology and reviewed the manuscript. ZZ advised on investigations. JH developed the strategic plan, reviewed the manuscript and supervised the study.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Julia E. Heck.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and recommendations. Informed consent was not required for this registry-based study. Study approval was received from the Danish Data Protection Agency and the human subjects’ protection boards at the University of California, Los Angeles (IRB#11-003360), and the University of North Texas (#IRB-20-255).

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Chen, Y., Hansen, J., Deng, C. et al. Paternal exposure to hydrocarbon solvents in the workplace and cancer risk in children and adolescents. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol (2026). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-026-00852-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Version of record:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-026-00852-z

Keywords

Search

Advanced search

Quick links