Table 2 Effects of HMA therapy on different immune cells in the murine system (M) and in humans (H).

T cells

Induction of CD8⁺ T-cell responses to tumor antigens (H)

Goodyear et al. [55]

Increase in IFN-gamma⁺ T cells (H)

Li et al. [122]

Enhanced CD8⁺ T-cell response by upregulation of MHC-1 (M, H)

Luo et al. [123]

Improvement of T-cell frequency and repertoire in MDS (H)

Fozza et al. [124]

Reversion of exhaustion-associated de novo methylation programs → rejuvenation of exhausted CD8⁺ T cells after sequential DAC and anti-PD-L1 treatment (M)

Ghoneim et al. [53]

Regulatory T cells (Tregs)

Expansion of Tregs after allo HSCT (M, H) and in autoimmune disease (rodent model)

Sánchez-Abarca et al. [54]

Goodyear et al. [55]

Cooper et al. [125]

Reduction in number and function of Tregs in MDS (H, in vitro HMA treatment)

Fagone et al. [126]

Costantini et al. [127]

Natural killer cells

Induction of KIR expression (H, cell lines)

Santourlidis et al. [128]

Sohlberg et al. [57]

Decrease or increase in NK cell functionality and number (H, M, cell lines)

Gao et al. [129]

Schmiedel et al. [58]

Kübler et al. [56]

Increased susceptibility of AML blasts to anti-CD33 antibody and NK-mediated ADCC (H)

Vasu et al. [59]

Dendritic cells

Increased CD40 and CD86 expression (H)

Frikeche et al. [130]

Decreased IL-10 and IL-27 secretion (H)

Kwon et al. [60]

Activation and increase in IFN-gamma levels (M)

Myeloid-derived suppressor cells

Decrease in cell number (M)

Triozzi et al. [61]

Kim et al. [62]

Luker et al. [63]

Zhou et al. [131]

Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs)

Increased support of healthy over clonal (MDS) hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell expansion (H; coculture conditions)

Wenk et al. [64]

Decrease in IL-6 production in MSCs from MDS patients to levels found in normal controls (H, in vitro AZA treatment)

Boada et al. [132]

Increased immunomodulation and migration (M, human cells)

Lee et al. [133]