Table 1 Summary of studies on stress and hippocampal-dependent and hippocampal-independent memory tasks in rats, mice, and humans.

From: Neurocognitive effects of stress: a metaparadigm perspective

Subject	Stress	Behavioral task	Main findings	References
Rat	Repeated restraint	Eight-arm radial maze	Impaired spatial memory	[178]
Rat	Novel environment and cat exposure	Radial arm water maze	Impaired spatial working memory	[62, 204]
Rat	Restraint + tailshocks	Morris water maze	Impaired spatial memory (hidden platform)	[66, 67]
Rat	Restraint	Contextual fear conditioning	Enhanced contextual freezing	[92]
Rat	Footshock	Morris water maze	Impaired spatial memory (hidden platform)	[71]
Rat	Restraint + tailshocks	Visual paired comparison task	Impaired long (but not short) delay recognition memory	[68]
Mouse	Repeated social confrontation	Conditional discrimination task	Impaired spatial responses	[205]
Mouse	Repeated restraint	Novel object/location task	Impaired recognition memory	[206]
Human	Combat-related PTSD (Vietnam veterans)	Wechsler memory scale, selective reminding test, and Wechsler adult Intelligence Scale	Impairments in recall, retrieval, and storage of verbal tests	[55]
Human	Combat-related PTSD (Vietnam veterans)	Auditory verbal learning test	Deficits in word-recall memory tasks.	[207]
Human	Trier Social Stress Test	A declarative memory task	Stress-induced cortisol levels correlated with declarative memory deficits	[208]
Human	Socially evaluated cold pressor	Probabilistic classification learning task	Hippocampal activity negatively correlated with performance	[209]
Human	Threat of shock	VR spatial memory task	Increased inefficient route taking	[210]
Human	Threat of shock	Word-scene association task	Impaired episodic memory retrieval.	[211]
Rat	Restraint + tailshocks	Eyeblink conditioning	Enhanced conditioned eyeblink responses.	[83, 212]
Rat	Restraint + tailshocks	Morris water maze (visible)	Enhanced habit memory (visible platform)	[67]
Rat	Chronic unpredictable stress	Instrumental task	Increased habitual strategy	[213]
Rat	Restraint	Cued fear conditioning	Enhanced cue freezing	[92]
Rat	Forced-swim Elevated platform	Delayed alternation	Enhanced working memory	[214]
Rat	Exposure to predator odor (TMT)	Dual-solution plus-maze task	Enhanced single-solution plus-maze performance	[215]
Rat	Chronic variable stress	Dual solution T-maze	Enhanced habitual learning strategy	[216]
Rat	Psychosocial	Radial arm water maze	Null effect on reference memory	[204]
Mouse	Exposure to rats	Circular hole board task	Enhanced stimulus-response strategy	[217]
Mouse	Repeated social confrontation	Conditional discrimination task	Enhanced habit-like responses	[205]
Human	Socially evaluated cold pressor test	Probabilistic classification learning task	Striatal activity positively correlated with performance	[209]
Human	Trier Social Stress Test	Spatial learning task designed by the authors	Enhanced stimulus-response learning strategy	[79]
Human	Performance pressure	Speech learning	Enhanced speech learning	[218]
Human	Mental arithmetic problems	Perceptual-motor learning task	Enhanced timings, accuracy, and variability of movement	[219]
Human	Intelligence test HAWIK-IV	Manual dexterity test (flower trail, FT)	Enhanced manual dexterity	[220]
Human	Cold pressor stress	Recall of arousing versus neutral slides	Enhanced memory for arousing but not neutral slides	[221]
Human	Grouped by Trier inventory of chronic stress	2D task	Enhanced stimulus-response strategy	[217]

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Table 1 Summary of studies on stress and hippocampal-dependent and hippocampal-independent memory tasks in rats, mice, and humans.

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