Table 4 Neuroimaging studies of toxins.
Study, location | Participants | Mean age (SD; range) % Female | Exposure | Study design; covariates | Primary findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vaidya et al. [118] India | 1014 participants of Consortium-on-Vulnerability-to-Externalising-Disorders-and-Addictions (cVEDA) | 14.9 (4.8; 6–23) 44.5% | Arsenic | Cross-Sectional | Higher arsenic exposure was associated with increased volume in inferior frontal cortex, and decreased volume in right inferior temporal cortex, right rostral anterior cingulate cortex, and left Insula. And alterations in functional brain activity in inferior frontal gyrus, insula, inferior temporal gyrus and rostral anterior cingulate cortex. |
Suchy-Dicey et al. [193] United States | 687 healthy adults; Strong Heart Study & Cerebrovascular Disease and its Consequences in American Indians (CDCAI) | (65–80) 68% | Arsenic, Cadmium | Cross-Sectional | Higher arsenic burden was associated with higher white matter hyperintensity. |
Acosta-Cabronero et al. [194] Germany | 116 healthy adults | 54 (19; 20–79) 48% | Iron | Cross-Sectional | Higher iron concentration was associated with age-dependent clusters in sensory-motor, dosal-frontal lobes, posterior incular, cerebellum, dentate nucleus, putamen, caudate nucleus, thalamus, mammillary bodies. |
Zachariou et al. [195] United States | 95 healthy adults | 69.7 (5.7; 60–86) 63% | Iron | Cross-Sectional | Higher iron concentration was associated with low neurite density within task-relevant white matter networks (especially within frontal and parietal cortical regions). |
Beckwith et al. [196] United States | 155 participants of Cincinnati Lead Study (CLS) | 27 (1.1; 25–31) 58% | Lead (lead levels measured in pregnant mothers) | Cross-Sectional | Higher lead exposure in childhood was associated with lower grey matter volume in several regions in females (frontal gyri, temporal lobe) and males (predominantly frontal and parietal lobe). |
Beckwith et al. [197] United States | 123 participants of Cincinnati Lead Study (CLS) | 27 (1.1; 27–33) 58% | Lead (lead levels measured in pregnant mothers) | Cross-Sectional | Higher lead exposure in childhood (at age 78 months) was associated with three grey matter clusters including the Cingulate, Medial Frontal Gyrus, Superior Frontal Gyrus, Paracentral Lobule, Supplementary Motor Area. |
Marshall et al. [119] United States | 9712 participants of participants of Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) | (9–10) 47.4% | Lead | Longitudinal | Higher risk of lead exposure in childhood was associated with smaller cortical volume and cortical surface area, especially in low-income households. |
Marshall et al. [120] United States | 8524 Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) | (9–10) 47.6% | Lead | Longitudinal | Higher risk of lead exposure in childhood was associated with smaller volume of the corpus callosum (mid-anterior, central, mid-posterior) |
Schwartz et al. [122] United States | 532 male participants of Former organolead workers | 56.1 (7.7; 45–75) | Lead | Longitudinal | Higher occupational lead exposure (18 years ago) was associated with smaller total brain volume, as well as volume in regions of cingulate gyrus, insula and corpus callosum. |
Reuben et al. [121] New Zealand | 564 participants of Dunedin Study | 45 46.5% | Lead | Longitudinal | Higher lead exposure at age of 11 years was associated with smaller cortical surface area, smaller hippocampal volume at age 45 years. |
Migneron-Foisy et al. [198] Canada | 89 participants of Nunavik Child Development Study (NCDS) birth cohort | 18.4 (1.2; 16–22) 57% | Mercury, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Lead | Longitudinal | Higher differences in pre-postnatal mercury and polychlorinated levels were associated with higher fractional anisotrophy in several regions of the corpus callosum (anterior and posterior midbody, isthmus, splenium). |
Invernizzi et al. [199] Italy | 193 participants of Public Health Impact of Metals Exposure (PHIME) study | 19.2 (15–25) 53% | Manganese, lead, copper, chromium | Cross-Sectional | Higher dosage of metal mixture was associated with lower global and local efficiency in rsMRI network (111 brain regions). |
Van den Dries et al. [200] Netherlands | 518 participants of Generation R | 9.9 (9–12) 50.6% | Organophosphates | Longitudinal | 10-fold increase in averaged dimethyl metabolite concentrations across pregnancy was associated with lower fractional anisotrophy and higher mean diffusivity in most tracts EXCEPT uncinate fasciculus, (left), forcepts major (right), corticospinal tract (right). |
Binter et al. [123] France | 95 participants of Perturbatuers endocriniens: Etude Longitudinale sur les Anomalies de la Grossesse, l’Infertilité et l’Enfance (PELAGIE) | 10.8 (10–12) 56.8% | Organophosphate pesticides—dialkylphosphate (dap) | Longitudinal | Higher dialkylphosphate levels were associated with lower brain activity in left inferior frontal gyrus, bilateral superior frontal gyrus (during successful inhibition). |
Lamoureux-Tremblay et al. [201] Canada | 71 participants of Nunavik Child Development Study (NCDS) | 18.3 (0.1; 16–22) 56% | Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Mercury, lead | Longitudinal | Moderate to high concentration of polychlorinated biphenyls were associated with greater differential activation (during conditioning) in the right orbitofrontal cortex. And lower differential activation (during extinction) in right anterior cingulate cortex, higher differential activation in right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. |
Sussman et al. [202] Canada | 46 participants of GEStation and the Environment cohort (GESTE) | 10.4 (0.6; 9–12) 37% | Polychlorinated Biphecyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) | Longitudinal | Higher persistent organic pollutants (POP) exposure levels were associated with lower task-related functional brain activity in the inferior frontal gyrus and right anterior insula. |
England-Mason et al. [203] Canada | 76 mother-child pairs of Alberta Pregnancy Outcomes and Nutrition (APrON) study | 4.4 (0.8) 51.3% | Phthalate | Longitudinal | Higher maternal prenatal phthalate concentration were associated with mean diffusivity in right inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus, right pyramidal fibres, bilateral uncinate fasciculus; and fractional anisotrophy in left inferior longitudinal fasciculus. |
