Table 2 Summary of primary outcomes.

   Pressure pain threshold (0–1200 kPa)

446.27^a

27.10

535.32^a

30.52

488.05

34.05

492.18

34.16

0.018 (0.048)

   Heat pain threshold (°C)

44.63

0.48

45.24

0.37

44.85

0.50

45.13

0.49

0.216 (0.010)

   Heat pain tolerance (°C)

48.06

0.27

48.15

0.23

48.02

0.24

48.27

0.27

0.453 (−0.002)

   Mechanical temporal summation

3.90

0.63

3.44

0.55

5.23

1.17

5.10

1.58

0.322 (0.004)

   Thermal temporal summation

0.59

0.09

0.66

0.10

0.84

0.23

0.75

0.11

0.503 (0.004)

   Cold pressor threshold (time in s)

16.19^a

1.65

19.66^b

2.14

15.16^b,c

1.52

19.97^a,c

2.16

0.001 (0.085)

   Cold pressor threshold severity rating (0–100 VAS)

59.44

5.75

57.98

5.15

64.91

4.93

60.54

5.06

0.153 (0.017)

   Cold pressor tolerance (time in s)

53.99^a

9.08

69.27

10.15

51.84^b

9.32

72.04^a,b

12.51

0.002 (0.080)

   Conditioned pain modulation, mechanical temporal summation

−9.89

2.91

10.73

2.99

−14.41

3.63

−15.43

3.33

0.437 (−0.002)

   Conditioned pain modulation, pressure pain threshold

100.51

15.94

120.14

15.39

109.30

15.10

98.84

8.96

0.781 (−0.013)

   Capsaicin, thermal threshold

39.55

0.47

39.36

0.46

38.84^a

0.39

40.25^a

0.44

0.001 (0.058)

   Capsaicin, mechanical temporal summation

1.83

0.31

1.51

0.10

1.66

0.22

1.75

0.18

0.700 (−0.011)

   Central sensitization (z-score)

−0.14^a

0.06

−0.32^a,b

0.05

−0.19^b

0.06

−0.23

0.05

0.004 (0.072)

   General pain sensitivity (z-score)

−0.04^a,b

0.10

−0.30^a,c

0.10

−0.09^c,d

0.10

−0.27^b,d

0.12

<0.001 (0.102)

   Clinical pain severity (0–100 VAS)

12.57

2.92

9.32

2.71

13.46

2.93

10.95

2.74

0.302 (0.005)

   2-min walking distance

289.46

11.41

295.97

12.62

283.09

11.22

285.84

13.95

0.058 (0.031)

   Tug time

11.90

0.67

12.20

0.71

12.00

0.71

11.91

0.62

0.620 (−0.008)

   Stair time

6.18

0.52

6.13

0.48

5.98

0.49

6.04

0.43

0.861 (−0.015)

   Drug Effect

16.35^a,b

3.70

26.06^c,d

4.61

52.92^a,c

5.80

57.57^b,d

5.32

<0.001 (0.338)

   Good Effect

23.38^a

4.94

40.60^a

5.85

39.59

5.67

34.70

5.14

0.018 (0.048)

   Bad Effect

5.92^a,b

2.16

7.54^c,d

2.48

33.16^a,c

5.82

38.35^b,d

6.26

<0.001 (0.270)

   High

7.03^a,b

2.52

15.03^c,d

4.01

40.62^a,c

5.93

37.24^b,d

5.19

<0.001 (0.264)

  Like the Way I Feel

49.59

5.37

59.86

5.01

52.03

5.47

45.14

5.73

0.137 (0.018)

  Nausea

1.54^a

0.65

7.14

3.13

7.32

2.92

15.65^a

4.21

0.012 (0.055)

   Enjoyed medication (% Yes)

21.2^a,b

35.5

40.6^a

38.5^b

0.11

0.001 (0.328)

   Would take medication again (0–5)

0.79

0.19

1.39

0.24

1.09

0.26

1.19

0.29

0.185 (0.013)

   ≥60 on “High” rating scale (%)

0%^a,b

11.8%^c,d

47.1%^a,c

47.1%^b,d

0.002 (0.389)

   Willingness to pay for medication ($)

17.34

9.74

16.29

7.34

18.50

8.83

24.31

13.49

0.827 (-0.014)

   Circular lights (max per minutes)

33.11^a

1.55

29.50^a

1.54

32.33

1.85

32.16

1.60

0.029 (0.042)

   DSST (proportion correct)

0.60

0.06

0.58

0.07

0.68

0.05

0.64

0.07

0.491 (-0.004)

   PASAT, mean reaction time correct (sec)

1694.87

38.00

1748.40

63.84

1731.30

29.72

1788.52

34.80

0.343 (0.003)

   PASAT, correct (%)

43.67^a

4.07

34.98^a

4.30

40.57

3.78

42.19

4.05

0.023 (0.045)