Table 2 Nanoparticles-based biosensors in vascular aging-related diseases

Diseases	Nanoparticles	Biomarkers	Detection Limit	Technique	Ref(s)
Atherosclerosis	AuNPs	POVPC PONPC	0.17 nM, 0.44 nM	LC-ESI-MS/MS	²²⁰
Hypertension	AuNPs	ACE gene	1nM	EIS	²²⁶
	AuNPs	Cortisol	0.342 μg/dL	CL-LFA	²²⁹
	QD	Renin	25 pM	TIRF microscopy	²²⁸
MI	TiO₂ NPs	Myoglobin	0.22 ng/mL	Electrochemical detection	²³⁰
	PEI-AuNPs	Myoglobin	6.29 ng/mL	Electrochemical detection	²³¹
	HsGDY@NDs	cTnI, Myoglobin	9.04 fg/mL, 6.29 fg/mL	Impedimetric aptasensing	²³²
	GNRs	cTnI	10 ng/mL	Surface plasmon resonance	⁵⁷²
	AuNPs	cTnI, copeptin, H-FABP	0.3 pg/mL, 0.4 pg/mL, 0.06 pg/mL	Chemiluminescence	²³³
	GNVs	cTnT, CK-MB, NT-proBNP,	7.8 pg/mL, 910 pg/mL, 70 pg/mL	EFISA	²³⁴
	AuNPs	cTnI	5.7 ng/L	Digital immunoassay	⁵⁷³
	GQDs-AuNPs	cTnI	0.5 pg/mL	Enzyme-free electrochemical detection	⁵⁷⁴
	GO-AuNPs	cTnI	0.05 ng/mL	Electrochemical immunoassay	⁵⁷⁵
	AuNPs	cTnI	16 pg/mL	Electrochemical detection	⁵⁷⁶
	ABEI-AuNPs	cTnI	2 pg/mL	Electrochemiluminescence immunoassay	⁵⁷⁷
	AuNPs	cTnT	5 ng/mL	Surface plasmon resonance	⁵⁷⁸
	AuNPs	Hs-cTnT	6.2 ng/L	Digital immunoassay	⁵⁷⁹
	GNSs	Exosomal HIF-1α	0.2 ng/L	Colorimetric determination	⁵⁸⁰
	Ag/Au nanosphere	MiRNA-133a	0.306 fM	Surface plasmon resonance	⁵⁸¹
Ischemic Stroke	Graphene	MMP-2	17 ng/mL	Tracking spectral shift	²⁴⁵
	AuNPs	CRP	4.6 pg/mL	ECL-LFI	²⁴⁴
	Sandwich NPs	NSE	0.86 ng/mL	Immunoassay	²⁴⁶
ICH	Gold nanostars	GFAP	0.54 fg/mL	Immunoassay	²⁵²
CKD	AuNPs	Creatinine	13.7 mg/L	Surface plasmon resonance	²⁶²

AuNPs gold nanoparticles, POVPC 1-palmitoyl-2-(5′-oxovaleroyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, PONPC 1-palmitoyl-2-(9′-oxononanoyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, LC-ESI-MS/MS liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry, ACE Angiotensin-converter enzyme, EIS electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, CL-LFA chemiluminescence-based lateral flow assay, QD quantum dot, TIRF total internal reflection fluorescence, MI myocardial infarction, TiO₂ NPs titanium oxide nanoparticles, PEI polyethylenimine, cTnI cardiac troponin I, HsGDY@NDs heteronanostructure of nanodiamonds and hydrogen-substituted graphdiyne, GNRs gold nanorods, GNVs gold nano-vesicles, H-FABP heart-type fatty acid-binding protein, NT-proBNP N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide, CK-MB kinase-muscle/brain test, cTnT cardiac muscle troponin, EFISA enzyme-free immunosorbent assay, GQDs graphene quantum dots, GO graphene oxide, IONs iron oxide nanoparticles, hs-cTnT high-sensitivity cardiac troponin T, GNSs Gold nanospheres, HIF-1α hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha, MMP-2 matrix metalloproteinase 2, CRP C-reactive protein, NSE neuron-specific enolase, ICH intracerebral hemorrhage, GFAP glial fibrillary acidic protein, CKD chronic kidney disease

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