Fig. 2

Regulators and effects of different MSC fates. Regulated by a variety of intrinsic or extrinsic factors, MSCs develop into different destinies. MSCs have stem cell properties and diverse differentiation directions under distinct conditions. Phagocytosis of MSCs is mediated mostly by the monocyte‒macrophage system. Autophagy and senescence can be activated in ROS-enriched environments or under other conditions. Many MSCs undergo apoptosis. Changes in the functions and phenotypes of MSCs and their consequent effects can be detected when MSCs progress to different fates