Fig. 5
From: Metabolic regulation of the immune system in health and diseases: mechanisms and interventions
Metabolic regulation of immune cells in metabolic diseases. Chronic low-grade inflammation has been considered as an important trait of metabolic diseases. Obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) are typical representatives of metabolic diseases. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α from adipocytes can induce M1 macrophage polarization, and insulin supports interleukin (IL)-1-producing T helper (Th1) cells cell differentiation. Generally, in immune cells with proinflammatory phenotype, the metabolic pathways are upregulated. Glucose transporter type 1 (GLUT1), Hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) and pyruvate kinase muscle isozyme M2 (PKM2) are involved in regulating the metabolism of immune cells. After being activated, M1 macrophages can infiltrate adipose tissue, cause inflammation in islets and induce inflammation in the liver. Pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines produced by immune cells participate in disease progression
